Notices on Chinese grammar : Part I: Orthography and etymology

NOTICES

ON

CHINESE GRAMMAR

PART I.
ORTHOGRAPHY AND ETYMOLOGY.

BY

PHILO-SINENSIS.

BAT A VI A:

PRINTED AT THE MISSION PRESS.

MDCCCXL1I.

NOTICES 7/2-

CHINESE GRAMMAR.

BOOK I.
CHAPTER I.

ON SOUNDS.

WITH regard to the sounds of the Chinese language
She student would da well to consult Morrison's Gram-
mar, which contains a short treatise on4he subject, la
MarshmanVClayis Siuica,' there is a long and too theo*
reticai essay. An able paper on this topic appears it*
the Illrd Vol. of the Chinese repository, Na 1. Abel
Roi/iusat's Gramtrmire Chinoise, contains a lucid expo «
oition of the system. Premare, in his Notitue, is v^ry
short The introiuction to Kanghe's Dictionary, ftom
whence most of the remarks of the above writers have
been taken, is very full on the subject. For the FokeeB,
in particular, gee Medhurst's introductory remarks to
his Dictionary of that dialect, -and Dyer's -system of
intonation; while for the Canton dialect, the Chinese
Chrestomathy may be consulted, which adds Httle to the
^3-neral notices contained in the above wofks.

i. On examining the. great mass of tte sounds of

language, they appear as if they were the

•^ dilation made by a child, «Ajch just

^ m&» la, he5 foo; Sfor of

SOUNDS. CHAP. !,

simple.monoe-\ilables do the greater part of the words
• itesisl;; : ..TBey^te thus the bare pronunciation of the
elements of which every other language consists, with-
out their multifarious combinations.

2. The Chinese is the most monosyllabic tongue on.
-earth, though not entirely so. The Annjtmese is fuller,
and admits of more combinations; the Siamese resem*
bles the Chinese in many respects, so also the Laps, but
both have a greater number of polysyllables; the Birmah
and Pegu, two cognate dialects, have increased their
compounds, and the Cambodian still more so; the Ko-
rean and Japanese are decidedly polysyllabic, though
admitting of Chinese sounds to a great extent. It may
also be remarked, that the Chinese oral medium has
more combined words than the written one.

3. The student must therefore be prepared to deal
with monosyllables in all their imperfections. If he

4 merely wishes to study Chinese literature, this subject
need not engage much of his attention; but if, on the

« contrary, he intends to speak the language, he must from
the very first, bestow much care upon repeating, after
the teacher, with a shrill voice, every sound, endeavour-
ing to assimilate his enunciation, as much as possible,
to the Chinese drawl. Missionaries, above all, must
acquire the proper pronunciation, from frequent oral
communications with the natives, and they cannot do
better than live amongst the people, in order to ensui <
the acquisition of their dialects. Difficult as is the
task, still many stupid Malays and Negros have learnt
to pronounce the tones of the Chinese language bv
this means; whilst well-educated men, who have confin-
ed themselves to their teachers, have found great dif-
ficulty of utterance, whenever they come in contact
TOth the common people. The table of syllables, in

v Morrison's alphabetic Dictionary, or that contained in
Prsmare's Notitiee, if repeatedly read with a native, will
pcrbapb assist the student in acquiring the various
souses contained in the Chinese language. We have,
for the most part, retained Morrison's orthography.
which though<K-fective, is still the best invented*

CHAP. i. s4toros. 3

4, In characterizing the language as monosyllabic,
\ve do not mean to say, that it is entirely so; for it eon-
tains compounds of two, three, four, five, and even six
syllables, e. g. ^t *t seen s&ng, a teacher, }fe p
hae kow, a harbour. lljk ^ TJJ? tsung ping kwan* a
Lieut.-General. ^ !±~ ^ tseen le king, a spy glass.
?K B^ ^ ^ shuysze te tub, an admiral. fp
^ 1£ ^v ^ me t'heen che ta kwo, an abomin*
ation. 1$ M A •£ -^ nuy kb ta heo sze, a
minister of state. ^ ^ ^ ^. ^ pth te'£ cfce
hae tang hwa, Pyrus Japonica: while those of two are
of very frequent occurrence, (see the chapter on words.)

5, The sounds of the Mandarin dialect have ch, e,
f, g, gn, h, (aspirated) j, k, 1, in, n, c, r*g, p, s, sb, 68, t»
ts, u^ w, and y, for initials, when expressed by our letters:
the finals are our vowels, with the German or Italian
pronunciation, besides *n and ng; in this we do not in-
clude the syllable urh, which is unique in its kind*
The initials k, p, and t are sometimes aspirated, as J^
be, a foundation. $$ and k'he, a period, g, pa, crust*
and ^ p'ha, a curtain. $t teih, to guide, $§r andt'heih3
to fear; these aspirates ought to be carefully marked
from the very commencement. The final vowels
form a number of dipthongs, such as ae? aou, ay, ei, eaou,
and ow. This is perhaps the most simjple system of
sounds fc existence,

6, The numerous dialects spoken throughout the
empire Jifikr considerably from the Mandarin, both in
the imi iak as well as in the finals, and it is next to
impossible to give an outline of these variations. Even
the Mandarin dialect is spoken in various ways; the
northern people aspirate the words very strongly, and
pronounce the short words, such a$ %. tth, virtue; and

))£» peih, must, as softly as if they ended in a short
yowel; whilst more to the south, and in most of the pro-
vincial dialects, they are uttered abruptly as if they ter-
minated in d, k, p, or t; thus £& tseu&, to cut off, sounds
like tsoat ^ ke&, a bud, as kap. % keo, a horn, as
ke'ok. Ts is oft^n interchanged with ch, and sh; and
vice versa, A diphthong and vowel are not pro-

sossros;

& if they formed separate syllables; but the
is always uttered short, so as almost to coalesce
with- the former:- thus 3 leaou, finished, does not
sound like Ikaou. but leaou. ^ tew, not te-u,but tlu.

7. The great bulk of the nation has no idea of spell-
ing, but in several native dictionaries, a system of di-
viding words into initials and finals is introduced,
adopted perhaps in imitation of the Sanscrit, and by
Kang-he cm-tied to a great extent. In the national
dictionary there are nine series of initials, called ^ -$-
tsse * f VOQ, 36ih number, llie first five have four, the sixth
a?nd seventh series have five, the eighth has four, and the
tdnth has only two sounds. The finals called flfc ^ neS
jfcjn; aie-twelve in number, eight of which are vowels
or diphthongs; and four nasals. By means of these
two classes the spelling of every word is effected. Thug
Suppose you wish to intimate how the character
JiL l&o, little, sounds; you would write jfc, lae, come,
8>r the initial, j^j led, to steal, as the final; thus 1 (ae
and 1) e6 becomes Ie5. This is a very tedious process,
and aot'eVfeH understood by the natives. The curious
reader will find' enough upon this subject, in Kanghe's
dictiouary, and Marshman's grammar^

8^ The whole number of distinct sounds formed in
Hie above manner is 629, including 195 aspirated ones,
It WdUtS haxxe-been quite impossible to have expressed
^riB6ffs with so very few articulations of the voice, and
AeTefdrethe* Chinese intonated them to increase their
variety and distinctness. There are altogether font
tones,, called^" shing, as ^ ping, the eveD,J; shangf.
the high on0,0furac ate, ^ kheu, the low or falling
soundy our grave;, and the J?v juh, or abrupt sound.
The Chinese, mark them thus, ± i ^ ^ this,
however* is not done, unless the word receive a dif-
ferent signification from wha" it has generally, and
only very exact writers, in few cases, make use of this
diacritical mark. The reason is, that every native when
hearing for the first time a word pronounced, though,
otherwise entirely ignorant of the system,, knows imme*
diately ta what sound* i* bdougs, Wsstew

CHAP. S. SOUNDS. 5

lars mark thera^ when expressing Chinese in Roman
letters, the ping, by a, the shang, by a, the k'beu,
by a. the jfchf by &. This intonation is a very
essential part of the language, to which a student from
the. very first must accustom his ear. It would be in
vain to attempt to convey an idea of the proper pronun-
ciation cf these tones by rules; the auditory organs alone
must be consulted; and when the distinction between
them is ascertained, «t ought to be carefully marked,
what tone each character bears, for otherwise none will
learn to talk intelligibly. Premare^ Morrison, and
others have given lists of the tones, which if attentively
perused with a teacher, will best initiate the student
in this mystery.

9. The meaning of words, though to a foreign ear
sounding in the same manner, is materially altered by
intonation; thus ^g eh6o,ahinge; JjJ choo, a kitchen;

J| choo, a place; jfe chuh,to go out. JJ. ma, hemp;

3| ma, ahorse; J| ma, to scold; ^ m£, or ino, to

wipe. Only those words which end in a simple vowel
can have the short sound. Hherearenot many sounds
that have tttis regular number of intonations ; 533 have
the ping, 501 the shang, 519 the k'heu, and 221 the
jiih, which gives the whole number of different sounds,
varied by tones, to be found in the Chinese language,
as 178L

10. It is remarkable that the same system of intona-
tion is found throughout all the dialects, and it may
therefore be considered as an essential part of the lan-
guage. Some dialects subdivide the tones into two
classes, higher and lower ping, shang, &c, whilst poets
merely divide them into ^ ping, even; and JL tsih,
deflected; subdividing them again into v^ tsing, clear,
and >U chub, impure tones.

11. Notwithstanding this intonation, there are still,
an immense number of words, which, though conveying
different ideas, are to a European ear pronounced exact-
ly alike; no les& than 1165 characters heave the sound
rfe, and of the other sounds, tbare are often from 50 to
ISO dbaiacte to each* aod ou average 16 characters to

fj SOUKftS. CHAP. L

each intonation, so that notwithstanding this refine-
ment of tones there exists stii! very great confusion in
the enunciation of this extraordinary language.

12. We have already remarked, that several cha-
racters change their signification with the variation of
the tone, as for instance g| yu, rain, becomes jj§? yu, it
rains; f|J woo, to hate, becomes H woo, or hoo, how ?

H 6. or go, bad. Thus many substantives and adjec-
tives are turned into verbs by giving to them the k'heu
tone, as jt choo, aJord; £ choo,to rule; 1 shang,
above; Jg shang, to ascend. Poets assume great liber-
ty in changing the intonation, for the sake of cadence
and rhyme. We would urge the reader most particular-
ly to give his attention to this subject, as this peculi-
arity is so very frequently overlooked.

13. Many characters change their signification, by
adopting different sounds, or in other words, certain cha-
racters have a variety of sounds and meanings. For
instence, the character )rg read khe, means elegant, tall ;
readkan, it signifies sincerity ;&] ke, to cut; read kwae.
means to sharpen. This will appear still more clear,
on examination of the dictionary: we merely subjoin
the remark, that there are several characters, which
may he read with two different accents, or even sounds,
without changing the meaning.

14. It frequently happens that a similarity of sound
conveys a similarity of meaning, thus "tt, king, $2.
lung,§^ king, and *g king, mean all violent; so also

ii Ifj JR. 4R. 3R an<i ^ a^ pronounced juen, or
nwan, mean equally soft. This is not merely the case,
where there is an apparent similarity of character, but
also where these have not the slightest resemblance, i-i&
HI heae, CJK! fit heae, bold: ^ and Tg heaou, to
call out. It is worthy of observation, that to a certain
class of sounds, a certain series of ideas is attached,
which remark would be confirmed by a reference to the
dictionary: we shall quote here some examples : ^
shih, %g che,^j? seih, and H seth, all signify to know>
to be acquainted wiih, yjij tung, ^ tung, |g. and tsung,
'

CHAP. II. CHARACTERS.

fmmg, mean obscure, dull, A slight attention to thte
subject, w/mld greatly facilitate the acquisition of the
meaning of characters.

15. Many passages in Chinese boolcs are obscure, be*
cause the writers, not consulting the meaning of the
characters, and merely expressing the sound, without
reference to the Dictionary, havegreatly embarrassed the
sense. This, is principally the case where persons have
only a partial acquaintance with the written language.

16. Without proper attention to the intonation the
spoken Chinese language is a mere unintelligible jargon;
great stress therefore should be laid upon the intonation,
as a wrong tone is not only grating to the ear of the
scholar, but perceptible by the most vulgar. In com-
position, the Chinese carefully put together their words,
so as to produce a rythmus. and when the regular cha-
racters.do not suffice, they use expletives to render
the cadence complete. It would be well for the foreign
student, when -beginning to read Chinese, to do it just
in the same singing manner as the natives employ, for
by this means he will learn to proaounce correctly, and
avoid confounding congenial sounds.

CHAPTER II.

CN THE CHARACTERS.

FOR a general system of the Chinese character, see
Abel Remusat's Grammar. Marshcnan's Grammar
contains a variety of good ideas, mingled with some un-
founded theories.

1. To convey ideas of objects, by tracing an outline
of them, is the first and most natural way of writing
The Chinese being throughout an original people, a-
dopted this mode in high antiquity, and the inventive.
of writing is ascribed to tuh-he and TsangheS. Tbese
tvorthiessresaidto haw fifet discovered this important

8 CHARACTERS. CHAP. II,

art, on beholding the lines on the back of a tortoise, and
the streaks with which beautiful insects are adorned.
But as every body cannot paint, and the process in itself
is a very tedious one, some more easy representation of
ideas became necessary; the forms were contracted and
remodelled, so as to suit the convenience of the writer.
Tt is also very obvious, that for the greater part of ideas
no imitative representations could be made,, and there-
fore new and arbitrary signs had to be invented. Thus
did the present system of the Chinese characters come
into being, and attain completion after many changes
and improvements. They constitute without exception
the most stupendous work of human genius, of which
xhe literary world can boast, and were brought to per-
fection by the incessant exertion and ingenuity of thou-
sands of the most intelligent persons, chosen from a
nation counting millions, apd this after the labour of
many centuries. Their acquisition is, therefore, very
difficult,, but their construction is worthy of our ad-
miration.

2, They have been aptly compared to our numerals,
each possessing an intrinsic meaning, with this differ-
ence, however, that from the component parts of some of
the Chinese characters the sound can be partially ascer-
tained. As a graphic system they have beauty and
expressiveness in their favour, but their being so nume-
rous and difficult of acquisition are very, great defects.
The paucity of sounds in this language renders all syl-
labic, or alphabetic representation of the same nugatoiy,
and the manifold dialects make their adoption a matter
of impossibility. The characters, therefore, are best
adopted to form the written medium of the Chinese
language. ; but some of the cognates, as the K o/eaa and
Japanese, possess a syllabic system, by which the sounds
of the characters are indistinctly conveyed; and e?en
the Cochin €fones«vadmits of the use of certains $mbols,
which serves for conveying the sounds, nearly in the
same manner as the above-named system. It as by the
use of tfc -victors that this great nafcu has remain*

ed one. whole* and btf^ gn&i soever tha uiaiactisai atf-

tiHAP. II. CHARACTERS. 9

fere ; vices, the literature has * d the same, intelli-

gible to the inhabitants of the most distant provinces,
throughout all ages.

3. The modes of writing the characters are various.
Those in present use are, 1st, the & *$| sung te, in
•which character most of the books are (>rinfcu. It is
firm and slid*, plain and perspicuous; but it is little used
ip writing: 2nd, the ^ ^f ktae shoo, pattern style, an
elegant and free hand, differing from the other by the to
tai absence of all stiffness : 3rd; the -fj- H" hing shoo
or running hand, which is the quick mode of writing
used in the business of common life: 4th, the J£ ^
tsaoutsze, is the extreme of the above, full of abbrevia-
tions and contractions, betokening the hurry, mth whirl
the characters are written, and almost unintelligible,
except to the initiated. With the firs* three, even
one who makes any pretensions to Chinese scholarship
should make himself acquainted, while he should ajs*-
endeavour to read the latter. There are besides these
three ancient forms, little used, except by pedants, anc*
in prefaces. They are 1st, the jji % le shoo, officu*
style. introduced about the commencement of our ere
thus called on account of its being used in the publi
offices; it is more coarse and clumsy than any of th
above, but has furnished the elements from whence th
present mode of writing was drawn: 2nd, the ^ ^1
chuenshoo, a square character totally different from a
others, almost exclusively used for seals : 3rd, the $$ $£-
k'ho tow, tadpole style; this is the primary hieroglyphic
first used at the invention of writing, and now entirely /
obsolete. The Chinese characters ere written from top f
to bottom, and from the right to the left of the page,

4. A good classification of the characters i> still a d-
sic! era turn; the Chinese have very little method in siu-
matters, and exhibit therein the total absence of a phil
sophi-cal spirit. The original and most nutural division
which is still retailed i.n some Japanese dictionaries
is to place their* according to their signification. Thu
all characters that denote celestial objects are place
uuder one head, those which signify berreetiol ones mi-

10 CHARACTERS. CHAP. II.

der another, &e. This arrangement, however, has ma-
By great defects, and renders it often very difficult to
fed a character. Ihe mode adopted. by Kanghe and
others, is to place the characters tender keys or ra*
dica3$, called %5 poo; and another plan is to divide the
ivhole mass of sy mi- ols according to the principles on
which they were originally constructed.

5. In detailing the latter classification we follow
native authors: 1st, there are characters refering to na-
tural objects, to which they bear some resemblance;
these are called ^ $1 hing seang, or hieroglyphics.
Such are $ muh, derived from ts? the eye, &c. •$-
tsze, from ^ a child, &c. in all 608 in number.
2nd, there are characters that combine two or three
ideas, in order to form a whole, as 3| seang, from wood.
eye, and bamboo, which joined together signify a box.
(the ( hinese have them elegantly made of bamboo.)
l/D n»ing, composed of sun and moon; signifying toge-
ther bright, clear: these are called ^ ^ hwuy e,
combination of ideas, amounting to 740 in number: 3rd,
those which convey by their formation some idea of situ-
ation or form; as j=L san, three, formed of three strokes
put together; 7\ hea, for ^ below, i and shang, for -i-
above; these are called^S^che sze> indications of things,
and are together 107. They might however, very pro-
perly be'placed in the first class, 4th, there is # class,
Called inverted symbols^ which have lost their originaf
form; thus^ yew, right, for *)* ;andjfe tso, left, for ^ :
these are called ^ ^L chuea choo, inverted significa-
tions, and are 372 in number. This class seems to be
Entirely fanciful. 5th, there are characters that have lost
their direct meaning, and have retained the metaphorical
one. Such are § t'heih, a concealed heart, now used
for vice. J# chub, grass springing forth, used fcr to go
out. These are called j§L f*| kea tseay, metaphorical,
aflic? are 598 m Dumber. 6th, characters conveying some
idea of sound are called ^ %£ shing hing, phonetic
characters; they consist of compounds, of wjiich one con-
veys the idea, and the other the sound: thut> 4fe pih, a
cypress , composed of ^ muh, a tree, and & pih,

CHAP. II. CHARACTERS, 11

white. The former indicates the idea, the latter the
sound. 3^ gno, a goose, coro posed of ^ guo, the
sound, and ^ neaou, the bird. This latter class is
the most numerous, and contains no less thaia 21,810;
making with the above 24,235 characters.

6. The elements of the characters are very sample;
a horizontal and a perpendicular line, two obKque ones
drawn in different directions, one with a hook at the
end, and a point or dot; from these few strokes the
vast variety of Chinese symbols has been framed, and
they are all found in the character jjc yung, eternal. It
is remarkable, that neither the circle nor the triangle has
been used, whilst the square appears in the most varied
forms. Calvgraphy is a science amongst the Chinese,
and nobody can lay claim to scholarship without being
able to write a fair hand. Much attention, therefore, is
bestowed on the art of drawing the characters, and tnaay
of the Chinese write very beautifully. The student
ought to learn from a native teacher how best to sketch
the symbol, and carefully imitate his manner.

7. The radicals under which the Chinese characters
are classified, are 21 4. It is by no means necessary
that there should be so many, for the forms of some are
contained in others, and about one third have only
a dozen characters under each, so that many of them are
quite superfluous. In Gonsalves' Dictionary the num-
ber has been considerably reduced. We may remark
with regard to these radicals that most of them are ge-
neric terms, under which a whole host of words is torn-
prised ; such as ^ neaou, bird; $t yu, fish; ^ tsaou,
gTass, &c. Though in many instances the radical in-
fiuences the iiicaning, it must not always be interred,
that this is the case; thus J|f tseay, to pretend, is found
under the radical grass ; f|| kea, a price, is classed un»
der the .radical man, and so with a great many others.
The number of characters arranged under each radical
differs also very considerably ; thus *$ tsaou, grass, has
1423; j£- shwuy. water, has 1333; J show, the hand,
has 1012; Q k'hi.w. the mouth, has S83, It appears
that the inventors of this system Uave embodied in their

J2 CHARACTERS. CHAt». 11.

list many original ideas, -whilst they have introduced
150 various, sounds. Ibis shows that the classification
now treated of, was the result of deep research and
much labour.

8. The principal use of these radicals, or keys, is to
enable the student to find out the words in 'the Imperial
Dictionary. As soon as be has discovered the radical,
which occupies generally the most conspicuous part of
the character, whether to the left or right, above or be-
low, (the left being, however, the place of most of them,)
he must oount the strokes of whieh the other part of the
character is composed, and then look into the Dictionary,
where he will find the word- arranged under its appro-
priate radical, according to the number of the strobes:
thus ^ tseay, tc borrow, is under the radical A, jin?
a raaiij with 8 strokes; $& j£, will be found under the
key £i ho, fire, with 1 2 strokes, &c. The method of
counting the number of strokes can only be acquired by
use; thus £* yih. is only considered as or- tri

JC yew, and A mow, as two; and 12 k'how cbhb -
ii>g three strokes.

9, Many characters are writ ten in different ways;
equally correct; thus ^ che, to rehab, may be written

'%•• % and $| So jS.aaon, torains/is also writ*
ten jgg J|g. and thus with many •• characters that are
much in use, some of wbteh hs*T six 'diffetcnt forms; one,
however, is always thepredojaiivvte.

10. T Chinese lexicographers b»ve drawn a line of
deraarkation between these --variations. 1. There are
j£ ^1 ching tsze, characters which are correctly
written, and have no variations. 2. (^ ^ tuivg
tsze, identical characters, different forms having the
same meaning, as j$| and -ff| shen, food, a mess;
^ ^ * ^S* il, and ^ all pronounced kwei,
tlr^' ebeek bones, a diverging road, ; 3. >f(t '^-t'himg
sze, ckaracters that have some rolation to each other,
and may be used promiscuously, such as £$* tsan, to
rcangle, ab? viced fbr H. three: Jg moln. hnn^y. used
forjjlf mefcvS8cret. 4. ^ f piin ts^r-r and ' £ ^
kc»o • tsze,' origiBiai and ancient forms of the character ; of

CHAP. II. CHARACTERS.- IS

these there are a good many, as js for k'heu to
•walk; A for £& •• kwae, a clod. 5. <& ^ ^hiVi,
or vulgar forms; this class is the most ous.

as jti for jflL k-wei, a denum ; ^ for J| . c&o>*. <i place.
In short every provincial dialer t has a numbe - of Cha-
racters, that are not to be found m the IK;;.; ;<- W&
tionory, and arc peculiar to the place itself, • • • -•.
printed books (and especially in those written in
colloquial style.) a great many abbreviations and con-
tractions <*ve vnet-: wU.lron every page, wMch the reader
v } >e rif-FiCE -will be < lerstand ; such

nre^. far ^ ye:o severe; ^ lor ^ pan. to manage;
HP A a lh«>visand otljv-

1L Characters gnghily Riodified,' ought not to be
considered as syn0ftiifloti$j unless the respective charac-
teristic parts have a similar meaning, and the charac-
ters differ in xio oilier res j)ecl Thus nany charac
have promiscuoi&ly -;^'-' Hifih, wood, M- chuh. bnnv
and -^ 'tsacuf, grass, 'for radicals^ and if the .voairdnder
of the form reserableb one the other, they may almost
lie looked upon as synonimes. Should, however,
prevailing figure be ^5 nhjb. a stone, /^ jiiL, a man,
or jfo Mth, Ktrengtli, then how similar soever in form,
they gewerally differ as widely in meaning. Many
Eynibols are to an unaccustomed eye nearly alike, though
the meaning is materially different; thus .^t ping, peace,,
aM ^ hoo, a note of admiration in. or at. ^
keen, to see, and Jl pei, a pearl, or precious substance.
in distinguishing these, the attention should be directed
to see, whether a perpendicular stroke be used, or one
with a hook nt the bottom, and whether the slanting
Strokes be straight- or bent Kanghe has given, in the
introduction of tl».e Ihiperial Dictionary a list of cha-
racters, which resemble each other; and Dav>* has writ-
ten a very useful treatise upon Chinese Culigraphy,
in fl-'- !rai38a<?iions .^'the Royal . Asiatic Society.

/The number of Chinese • characters has been

±'.'<L The following estimate is perhaps

nearest the truth. The characters in Kanghe's Diction-

ary, are 31, 214; obsolete forms, 6.423; characters for

14 CHARACTERS* CHAP. II.

the first time collected m that work 1,659; and cha-
racters without name or meaning, 4 200; total 43,496.
It is natural to suppose that these are not all in common
use, and the question has again and again been asked,
how many are wanted to enable a person to write upon
any given subject. Some have said, that 2,000 were
enough, not considering the increased number of ideas.
which will need to be conveyed by persons writing on
literary and religious topics. The result to which we
have come is, that for the common purposes of life the
above number would be nearly sufficient, but feat a
professional writer* and a student of general literature,
must have from 8 to 9,000 at his command. (See
Dyer's very useful table of the most common characters.)

13. We have already alluded to mere local charac-
ters; of this description there are in tbe Canton dialect

fl|5 chuk, to move, and Pfr iui, not: in the Fokeen.

51 kea, a child, and $ lang, man, with many hun-
dreds more. In books these vulgarisms are rarely
found; but whosoever wishes to be thoroughly conver-
sant with a dialect^ ought to make himself acquainted
with these provincialisms.

14. The characters used by the Chinese are ideo-
graphic symbols, as rich in variety as the compounds of
the Greek language. The Chinese, who are actuated
in every thing by the rule of contrariety, instead of
combining sounds, have multiplied by juxta-positiou
the number of ideographic symbols. Other languages
speak to the ear. the Chinese to the eye; in the first
therefore it is extremely defective, in the second abun-
dantly rich, without parallel in other literature.

The most superficial observer will have remarked,
that besides tbe keys, there are a great number of signs,
which serve to compose characters. We shall here
merely quote a few, the others must be collected from
the Dictionary; the character ijjjj gno, I, forms a com-
ponent part of DO less than 25 characters, to most of
which it givr* soi'TJu; ^ chung, middle, of 19; £fcr
che, to kaenT, of 16, &e.

1-5, It eanrot bo. deuiea. that these compounding

CHAP. U. CHARACTERS, 15

symbols, in many instances, give not only sound, but al-
so a generic meaning to the newly formed character; as
is frequently the case with the radicals ; still there are
no certain rules for these derivations, and though some
may occasionally be traced, it is very difficult, to fix
with certainty upon the signification. (See the Dic-
tionary, where this subject is amply discussed.) A num-
ber of characters contain the meaning of both the com-
ponent parts; for instance -^ t£ng, from & kin, me-
tal, and ^ tang, to ascend, means a stirrup; ^- tseu,
from 3pt tseu, to take, and $£ neu, a woman, imports
to take a wife, to marry; Jl she, from Jf she, dead, and

^ me, rice, produces ordure, excrements. |i§ niing,
from ^ kin, metal, and J& ming, a name, to engrave.
The student ought to accustom himself thus to trace
the origin of the characters, and in so doing he will
never cease to admire the great ingenuity of the Chi-
nese in forming their language.

16. If each Chinese character had but a single
meaning, it would be tolerably easy to acquire a suffi-
cient number of them; but besides the reasons that
multiply in other languages the signification of words,
there is in Chinese the similarity of sound with other
characters, that leads to the confounding of significations;
and moreover, a system of compounding two or more
symbols, to convey a single idea, which renders the ac-
quisition still more difficult Thus £fc keu, for instance,
means to raise, lift, move, elevate, introduce, recom-
mend, to bring forward a subject, to praise, (used for

jf^ yu, to praise,) to promote, all (used for fft keu, all,)
to walk, (used for $j~ k'heu, to go.) to venerate (used
for $f ke, to pray to,) to kill viciiros for sacrifice, (used
for Hjj keih, to kill,) to confiscate smuggled goods, (used
for ^ keu, to lay hold of,) besides three taels weight,
other and a variety of other significations. Combined with
wor«3s to f >rm phrases it reads thus, j^ A keu jin,
£ ',:rnuuate of the second degree; ^ Up? keu tung,
behaviour; ^ ^j keuhing, to put in practice ,
c keu, a nobleact; — - j^l yih keu, with oae

fc once; l)£ - keu she, the whole world;

16 WORDSo CHAP, III.

keu tseeti, to recommend; $j£ ^ kce,; ]ca;: to arrange:
$fc 3^1 paou keu, to patronize; ^ JljL seih ken,
detail; J^ JL keu che, conduct; j^ .Jj£ leangkeu,
•twice; 4^ II: keu fa, to bring forward; A. jfa. ta
keu, loudly; ^ ^ ^ ^ keu show che laou, a
job; jjt JpL tae keu, to raise; £fr ^ keu jang, to
elevate; ^j^ tih keu, eminent; ^- ^ keu meers,
to dispense ; ^ J^ kaou keu, to inform against, and
many others. In this manner the meaning of the cha-
racters is multiplied to a very great extent, and
the most common ones ar« subject to almost infinite
variations.

17. It is therefore no email lask 10 become
sant \vith the symbols of the Chinese language. Tiir
best plan is to become ac^:-: ;- V({ with the <v,rn-
mon ones first, aii<3 tlien to study the combinations.
Having learnt a few hundred f*f these, others will occur,
and rivet themselves in the memory al *iost mechanical-
ly, until! the student masters a sufficient number. Let
it never be forgotten, however, that undivided attention
must be given to this subject by every one, who wishes
to make real progress in the language; for it is only by
bard labour, that a Chinese scholar can be formed.

CHAPTER III.

1. WE hare already intimated that the Chii-
symbols form a system of ideography, so that every
character expresses an idea. Thus jfc te, earth, J^
kwang, broad, fli keang, to speak, ^. tsae, ia, P^.
tseay.ay! Of some, however, the meaning has been
1*.:-,t../«n{l iithr.-.'s serve as mere expletives, and arc used
<miy |i»i ihe >'kr of euphony, as J$~ he, and $L yay.

2. lr:o« isks upon this subject we shall co--
:r^ 'jurseV 'jipally to the written language,

:HATV tit. -jRiwa. It

only notice the oral pBedhm, in so far as it stands in re-
lation with the other. The Chinese language is exceed
ingiy dissimilar to one wegU **> toagxies, and the Eur?i
peau stuclent at^yerv stt- 'he greatest discrepa^

ties, if not the utmost contrariety, jis cornered with all
that he has been hitherto accustomed to. The sooner,
therefore, su« h alearr?* can;di\esthiiiiselt of Ms former
ideas of Grr^mrnar^tht better. A.jDcitf^ene hereopenfe
before his eyes? and the more completely he can localize
himself in this new sphere, the more easily will ne com-
prehend the structure of the Chinese tongue.

3. Referring to the above enumeration of characters,
it will be seent tb. ^uagc m i», which ha*

so maaj syrribol*; o» foi > suppose

that they weic fonned according ic the w^ats of

and that no ;chatacler was framed, ttnl^as a new ides
rei)dered it. rieces^ar. Them must ha^e been a

great demaad for t^mh^ among a series of writers, who
lif ed during a period of more than ^0 centuries, aod
who touched almost upon every topic oi literc*
penning volume upon volume, on each subject, if
therefore, it may not be considered 4he rirhest language.
{as far as the number of^ords is concerned,) it yields
the palm of superiority to very ^few.

4. The Chinese is remarkable for an abundance oi
synonymes, which were perhaps found necessary, either
to remedy the defect of a monosyllabic t ngue, or to
aid in the rythmus. A great number of these have at
most the same meaning, at any rate i* is difficult to dis-
cern the shades of difference between some of them;
take, for instance, the characters for expressing the idea
of examining; they are. ^ cha, jj£ ch£, ^ sang,
% kaou, ft kc, ^ kew, ft sin, jfc keen, ^
aieen, ^ tau, Sj ^Sn^ |&j seuo, jg% yen, |g yug,
.£- keen, ^j| kwan^ j^ sbe, ^ keaou, ^ hih,
j£ she.^fr kan, 4 »inr|^ fang, |i ke«, ^ kwei»
|^ seang,and ^ hTh, all of which, either separately
or combined, bave this meaning. So also the : charac*
teis&j speaking ;Las f£ ktiang,

18 WOBDfc, CfiAP. ill.

|£. tan, ^ yun,1l yu, jq yufr,.|fe- lun, ^
fcaou, _ seu, &e.

5. The great resources of the language, however.
consist in its capacity for forming compounds. Phrase?
containing two words may be divided into four classes:
1. When both the characters are synonymous, as -^
^ cha cha, to investigate: H !g shea seay, to
writer $£ $L hae urh, a child: fj || seTh shuh,
accustomed. 2. When one of the characters gives a
a general, and the other a definite meaning, as ^ yf
seu taou, tautology; in this instance, >^ taou, to speafc,
gives the general, and ~|£ seu, to reiterate, the definite
sense. Jjl jjfc sanyen^ sterny severe; where ^ yen,
regulates the meaning; and $. ^ keaou pwan, to
transfer, where 3t expresses the definite idea, 3.
When two characters respectively contribute to give a
new 'but cognate idea: thus $£ $§- pwan 16, a snare,
from $£ pwan, ropes thrown about to entangle, and
$t lo, threads of silk: ^ ^ pei pwan, to rebel,
from ^f" pei, to turn the back on, and $m pwant to
revolt: (^ -f^ tung pwan, a companion* from 8
tung, together with, and ^ pwan, a^b associate, 4.
When by the juxta-positioa of two characters an idea
is elieked, which is not inherent in either of them: as
j? ^ fang peen, alms, from ^r fang, a square, and
^ peen, convenience: _jfc i seen giing^ a teacher,
from $L seen, previous, and i sang, bcra: > ^
ling gae, your daughter, from ^- ling, honourable^ an(!
^ gae, to Jove.

6. The first class is the most numerous. The Ch^
nese, much delighting in euphony, group a great many
characters together, merely for the sake of s«»und. Thus
they say, ^fe. j$L e fuh, clothes; £ ^jr sfeg ming^
life. Or they form the words isriih a view to greatest dis-
tinctness in the sounds^ and to prevent mistakes. Thus
they combine »}§ $£ e yu^, for joyful; *t& e, alone,
raight signify a hundred other things,, but by this cdlo-
eaison its meamiig is fixed. So tbey say, fc ^ tszc
seu, regular; there are so many words pronounced tsze,
thai the latterr whe« cnunriated, ^ooM not distinctly

. riii. woum IS

convey the proper idea meant by tsze. This is the
great secret, 'Why, notwithstanding the paucity of indi*
vidual sounds, and the great sameness with which the
characters are pronounced, there still exists so much
distinctness in the spoken language. But these com.
pommfe are already definitely fixed by the force of habit.
and cannot be put together at •random, something like
our words topsy turvy* harum scarum, and similar ex*
presskms. A fine ear will soon discover the propriety
and euphony that exists in this juxta-positkm of wotxis.
In fee spoken language these synonymes occur more
frequently, for the above reasons, than in the written.
Let it, however, not be imagined, that the above com*
pounding characters can only join with one associate;
for there are several that may combine with two ae three
others, with equal justice. To give an instance of the
ainazing^exuberance of the Chinese languge we <juote
the following combinations: ^ ^fr w^n ho, *fy yjj*
hoHuib, jfr $L koyung, jg ^ s&rng ho, $& 3f
ho ping, JL ?0f t'bae ho, and f& ^ ho kite, all of
which mean harmony, peace, concord* &c. So also
* $ hwan he, ^ $k he 16, 4 ft fee yu«,
and $t ^ bin he, whieh mean joy, aaad a hundred
others, with as many variations. Besides these, there
are a few characters that are always used together, as
ft ft gae tae7 cloudy, atid ->]; yg sha imm, priest;
a few also are repeated, as jg: jn£ pe pe, arranged iu
order; and the language itself admits of tautology to a
considerable extent

7. The second class is far less numerous, and there
exists yet no Dictionary that has eareMly collected them,
either native or foreign. A few will be found inters-
persed in every lexicographic work, and especially iu
Morrison's. They ought to be made a peculiar subject
of study, otherwise many passages and phrases will rie->
eessarily be misunderstood. $$ ^ kwei yin, for io-
gtwace, means defalcation, which a beginner, pethap%
would translate, to tose^money: j^ ^ kung kv?^, CK-
ercises of a literary nature, and by -no means, meritorious
tasjks. To fee able to understand and use this class of

£0 WORDS, CHAP. XII

properly famishes the best proof of real progress
in the study of Chinese lore.

8. To the third class tnany words similar to our
bricklayer, shcomaker, &c, belong. Under this head
* Te also reckon a great number of metaphorical expres-
sions, such as H X. ko tsub, to bind up the feet, gene-
rally used for being fettered, or hampered;^ $£ kwang
kw£n, a bare stick, a sharper: 7)* A seaou jin, a lit-
tle man, a worthless fellow: ^ 4j| hwan fei, the soul
flying, used for fainting; and many others, in which the
Chinese have shown very great ingenuity. We ought
here to remark, that it matters very little, whether in
our acceptation of the words, the compounding characters
are adjectives, substantives, or verbs; and Whether tfc<*y
may be united with others belonging to a different class,
the Chinese draw no such distractions, and amalgamate
words at pleasure, no matter to what class they original-
ly belong.

9. The fourth class, certainly the most difficult, is
not remarkable for its richness in primary ideas, but
for its utility in describing scientific objects, or words
that have been introduced by progressive civilization*
such as $1 $f[. seun foo, a Lieut. Governor: jfc. jf
sfawuy sse, an admiral: %& j§fe twan choo, a fault, an
error: ^f ^ wae ko, surgery. The student should
imt separate tfcese expressions, but consider them as
compounds; just as he woutl pollysyllabie words in any
language, and thus read waeko, and not wae ko, no
more than he would pronounce, or write sur gery, or
trans actions.

1(1 We should not be far wrong in affirming, feat
the number of compounds in Chinese is greater than
that of single characters, though most of the original
ideas are conveyed in monosyllables, as is also the case
in many instances in our own tongue. The Chinese
language, moreover, is £b well adapted to form new
compounds, that the stock appears to be inexhaustible.
As, however, every thing in Chinese Grammar depends
Oc the collocation* of words, it is by DO fnea&s a& indi&
feiettt' i&atttr w&kfe d fee two jp&^tO3 be put fce&re

CHAP. if*. woitm 21

and which behind; a transposition either deranges the
whole idea, or gives rise to a new one ; thus 3t i
seen s£ng, conveys the idea of "teacher;" hut trans-
posed "born before/* So also -ft i g£n choo, a
patron, hut ' t Jft, choo g&it, the grafce of God, And
ty g| chung kwo, China, but H *f* kwo chung,
the middle of a kingdom.

11. There are a great many characters, which
though not forming a single idea, are very frequently
found in company: such as ^ ;Q- tth hing, the prac-
tice of virtue. >f~ H jin e5 tefwolence and* justice;

^J HP le hae, advantage and injury : ^t $8, t&ou
le, the principles of reason. The line of demarcation be*
Iween compounds and adventitious collocations cannot be
drawn so definitely, that there should not be occasionally
an approach to either side, IB regard to the above
mentioned classes, it ought also to be remenibered, that
they are not so distinct, as' our general rules would
geem to intimate; still this arrangement may enable the
student to classify the compounds with which he "meets
critically, and thus considerably assist his memory.

12. Though each of the last three classes have a
distinct meaning in combination, yet they may occasion-
ally be used separately; thus the compound JL H
yen tsze, signifies together, faither and mother; butthej-
may in certain connections be also read jS. yen, stem,
and H tsze, kindt whicii^are the original meanings <tf
the terms. So ^ ^ teth yen, a shuttle-eock3 may
also signify, to tread Upon a swallow; which meanings
are conveyed by each character separately,

13. In the collocation of two characters there is a
• great tendency to antithesis ; a peculiarity in which this

language surpasses others. Expressions like these,
Jj£ & hih pih, black and white; ^f jt haou tae^
good and bact; ^ jt- tung che, rootion and rest;
^ £ Ban he^ male and female; ^ ^r laouyew,
old and young; occur again and again, where other lan«
guages do not require them. Compounds are also form-
ed by putting a negative particle Before an adjective,
it tibe opposite inemiog; as fc ^f pub

23 WORDS. CHAP. HI.

haou, bad; ^ |^ pub me, ugly, &e* this class is
numerous.

14. Compounds do not merely comprise two chfr
tacters, but sometimes many; as ^ ]g ^ tseen le
king, a spy glass; ||r H~ ~Jfe sew hwuy ehang, an
abbot; $. 3^ A wae yangjin, a foreigner. There
are scarcely any verbs or adjectives of this class, and
most of the triple compounds signify ideas that hare
been introduced into the language, since the march of
intellect has made some progress.

15. Compounds of four characters, are such as
these, ^ X iit $1 s&ng seay keen peih, an abbr&>
viation ; jj& ' ijfe. ^ ^ paou heen shin shin, detesr
tation; words of ibis class are either strictly speaking
compounds, as j% ^ ^ ^ seang Iwan che tsing,
attachment; and ^ S^ ^ ^ sbwuy sze yew
kefli, a post captain ; or they consist of the mere repeti*
tion of two -compounds, as ^ )§. ^- ^ paou
ehangfungkeang, the defences ,(ofa country;) ^ ^
i> Jfc kin «he yuh yg, delicacies: ^t' >u> ^ J^
sang sin ine^ k, abandoned, or they are ciflcumlo^
cations, such as ^ ^ ^ l& chow neen che nuy,
within the cmnpass of e year; /^ /^ jfc jfe kwei
tsan woo te, greatly ashamed; flL jli ^(t "fe kea
tseay ming sfl^ pretence. Still, whatever they may bef
they convey a single idea, more or less forcibly express-
ed. There are very few of five characters like $| yf-

Ui Jx $ lo foo san shihlan, the dendr(*bium; an3
fl $J. St.; if IS keen ts^g die yen yu, appthegms.

Those of six are mere frequently met with, a« ^ ^
^ 56 ^ jt Paou heo shin tung king sze,

learned; ^ ^ ^ ' $ ^ ^ tw^aa chwai^

ching s^i yen wei, majesty.

16. It cannot be denied that seme of these latter
compounds may be resolved into distinct significations,
still the native reader considers them as expressing one
idea, and the meaning thus conveyed by the aid of a
animal: c£ ..ymbols is fixed more impressively upon hk
iniod. The ormatioii of these words seems to have

just in the ssme manner a$ our adopiioa of

CHAP. in. WORSS. 23

compound Greek words, as we ourselves stood in want

. of proper tenpis for subjects of which ctur ancestor*

/ could not form the slightest notion. The Chinese lan~

guage possesses, moreover, one advantage; it .can place

a great number of words before substantives^ as epi-

thets, and thus incorporate the description of Ihe subject

mth the word itself, so as to represent it under the

most varied forms, (See the Syntax.)

17. A great many compounds, if we may call them
so, are. also formed, by putting at the end of a string of
words either J& chay, or £§ teih; as ff ' Ifc ffij ta
yu teih, a fisherman; ^ ^ $3 tso heae teih, a shoe*
maker. Whether we denominate these phrases, or
simple compounds, it is all the same; the idea becomes
by this process concentrated, thus ^ %§• cho chay.
a maker; ^J 3$ hingchay, a waiter. $1 31
seang puh taou chay, incomprehensible, u»*
$L ^ fa $£ irij »fifc yew kwei lieu
teih, irregular; ^ *~g" ^ ^ puh k'hoshay
tefli, unpardonable. (For the formation of words bj
annexing $£ uA, and ^ ^s*e» see the (Chapter W
Particles.)

18* A little study of the language soon convinces
one, that it not merely consists of words, but in a great
measure of sentences, or phrases, which are used, ae
our law terms and proverbs. This ought to be kepi ii»
view by the student, and as many of these trite express
sions committed to memory, as that faculty is abte
to retain*

1^» The Chinese have no idea of our grammatical
distinctions, aor has a singte native writer touched upon
the subject^ Whatever, therefore, is said in the second
part of this work must be understood as an attempt to
place the language under grammatical rules, in order
to facilitate the study of it to Eumpeans. A word may
be used as a substantive, adjective, or verb, just as it
pleases tfc^ speaker or writer, and its position shows in
what sense it ought to be understood; for instance, jfe
yu, with, may also signify to give; :ty yih, to oppress,
may also Be tta disjunctive partite; ^ tsin, mayb^ e

tlfg 'JtOtm. CHAK I.

relation,.*)? to approach, or ftea?; >£ che, may signify trf,
or toamveat; f^r neang, to lookup, or the preposition
to, We find r4s0 the same word repeated, when the
first is a verb, and the second a substantive or adjective,
for instance jji ^ te te, to treat younger brothers as
such; ^ .JL 3\ $• she shs fei fei, to declare what
isrightio be rightr««id what is V7roug to be wrong:

^S- ' i& M -S • • 'mou ^aoa wo° ^» ^° esteem what is
good rmd hate what is bad,

20, The Chinese themselves divide all words into
j| ^ heu tsze, empty ch^ , or jp& ^ tsoo

tsxef anxyiaries, and '|f ^ shih tsze$ solid ones; th*
former are the particles, the latter the otbur pails o|
speech. These are again subdivided mto .$ 3p.
living characters, verbs, or ^c '4" Sise ts«e?
a»d adjec

BOOK 11

GRAMMAR, ETYMOLOGY,
CHAPTER I.

THE

1. WE ought -here to ^ premise that the Chinese wifb
its cognate tongues has no inflexions, and that alt the
grammatical distinctions, which are thus indicated L*
other languages, are here conveyed by particles an6
generic terms.

2. We suppose that the student is acquainted witb
general Grammar, and therefore spend no time in defini-
tions. Whatever is here said points strictly to the pecu*
liarities of the language, without any attempt at adspt;
bg this • tongue to tbe Lgititt trremmar* We intend to

C&AJB. I.

give the Chinese, as a whole, such as it is> independent
of any other language, to enable the reader to become
fully acquainted with its idioms.

ON THE ARTICLE.

J&. In most instances, the Chinese language leaves
the article unexpressed: as ^ g ^ j& %, j
muh tseang tae ch6 tsze leaou, the carpenter has
brought the table: ft ± ^ >^v ^ he6 s^ng
tsae juh ub, the pupil has just entered the house.
When* however, a stress is laid upon the word, either
£ ke, the third persona! pronoun, or %j chay, the
relative pronoun, or the demonstratives }fc teze, $%
^ze,or^ pe, are used to indicate it: as Jj£ Hi f£ ^P
^5 l&jL ke 6 pepuhklioshaymeen. the sin oan-
not be pardoned :£ ^ ^ ^. fo ke jin hwae
tub sin, the man harbours malicious intentions: Jfe ^>
1ft ?T ~j& & tsze tsze shang k'ho kea yay, this child
is still praise-worthy: ^f IS ^f> Sfe It hZf* s^°°
pull ke^ ko, the tree does not bear fruit: ;ffc. j| -^
^- H. 1S. pe tse tsing chun sang gow, the woman
became a widow in her youth: A ^ lit ^
^ 1fe ^ Ifr ^ jin chay woo tih gan nJlog jin
chih boo, IiiAV can the man void of virtue hold an office ?

4. la the conversational language 2t $9 chay
ko, and ^ ^ na ko, serve the same purposes. It
ought to be remarked, that all these pronouns may be
translated this or that; but still the rule holds good,
that wherever a definite article is necessary, the above
words are used. The most frequent term employed in
books is j£ ke.

5. The indefinite article is, in highly finished literary
works, never expressed; in books wiitten in the conver-
sational style, and in common parlance it is conveyed,
though not very frequently ,^>y — yih, — 'fffi yih ko>

*— • ^H yih ko, and — ^ yih ko, (an abbreviated
fomofijj ko;) »g 1$ -jfc — ^ >7> ^ petfj
yih kong shale, gave him a pear: ^ — ^ ^

26 SASS&. oH&r. i.

& £§ jfc k'han yih ko yen sih telh ncu, he saw a
beauty: ^ >fgj :$f % yew ko haou e5 having a

Sood intention. Almost all the Chinese substantives
ave their particular numerals, which, put before the
noun, serve to circumscribe the indefinite article, as
"~ $5* DL y& chih chuan, a vessel: — > -ft ^
yih keen sze, a business: — ^. ^ ^ yih chun
k'bw&e sze, a pleasing affair: *% j)jfe — • j|t yu te£
yih fcaon, an edict. (See the paragraph on numerals.)

OK

6. Before proceeding further with the noun, we
must here remark, that there exists a very great differ-
ence between the conversational style, and works
strictly literal, which will be amply treated of under the
Chapter on Style; we shall only observe here, that we
intend henceforth to distinguish these two modes by
conv. (conversational,) and lit. (literary.) '

7. The genitive is expressed either by position.
preceding the nominative, or by H che, (lit.) and j$
teih, (conv.) l*hus A. 4 jin uh, a man's house:
^ H theen sing, heaven's stars. It is thus thai
many compounds are formed, as ^ $r shoo fang,
book room, a library: ^f ,tjt yu shwuy, rain water.
Regard to euphony and practice, will teach us whether
we ought merely fco indicate this case by position, or to
use )£ che, and IHj teih; for one may say, A ]Jt ^
jin che uh, and J^ b§ 3, t'heen che sing, without
changing the idea. If, however, several words precede,
these particles must always be used; as ^ 33L ^

ta<>u le che ching, the truth of right principles:

# -jfc A ^ % ^r ywn fei'fhajin
& woo, it was not the affair of other people: £&
% It H che shen chay che foh, to know the
happiness of flje good: "^ H * fe A chung kwo
teih jin, a man of the centra! empire, a Chinese. In
the colloquial style jfc te, and ^ te, on account
of sound. ?»rft -rften substituted for §§

CHAP. I. CASES. 27

' Every class of words, when placed before the noun, may
require the genitive particle, just as if they were nouns; x
9* ft 'ft *t ^ ts6 hing che yang, the man-
ner of doing any thing: A ^ ^ jin che to, many
people: H |L >£ /& shea leang che sin, a good
aeart^ and similar expressions: (see also the paragraph
upon the particles ^ che, and jHf teih.) It is well to
remark also the following formations : ^5 |f$ teeh teih,
made of iron: Jfi 1$ shih teih, stony: ^ W *niih
teih, wooden: ^ %§ seay teih, written.

8. The dative is seldom expressed. The following
may he noticed: $ H #. . jlf- ffc e sin me tse joo?
we provii:3 you with fuel and rice: ;$fe 41? ^ A
she g5n chung jin, to show favour fo all men. In cases
where emphasis is required, the particle j^ yu, is used;
*&• ^ ^ ^ yu ke tuh, r^ead io him, (this may how-
ever also signify, cause h«n to read:) ^ J88 JL
^1 fi yu P^ng yew sfcwo hwa, to speak to a friend;
^ ^ $L JL A ieih tseeri yu kung jin, to give
inoney to workmen: ^ ^ % ^ yu gno Mn laes
seize and bring him io me: fa heang, ^f yu, anci
^ yu, (the latter merely on account of the similarity
of sound) are often used for ^ yu, as in the following
jjastanceir, ^ ^ Jfa ^p yu gno woo kao, it is JQO-
thing to me: ^ A Ht ^ 3& 7uji» woo pe jah^
no advantage to men: gj fe fa w£n yu gno, ask
me: fa ifc ^ heang t'ha shwft, tell him: ^
^ ^ ^ heang yang shang t'haou, ask the
Hong-merchants, or demand from them. Speaking to.,
may be expressed by ^ -flfc ^| tuy ta keanar, speak to
him: ft ^ ^ ho ta shw6, or ^ ^ <|Jt te to
shwo, tell him^(conv.) JFor, or instead of, is mostly ex-
pressed by 3fc wei, and occasionally by 4*£ tae, and
^ te, as }^ A ^ -j^- wei jin keuen ming, (lit,)
to sacrifice one's life for men: <fc A $t taejin fc§e
to da for one; ^ ® ^ 18 J^ te kw^kea ch'huh
leih^ to exert one*s self for the state. The words
keife, aad 1^ pe, may occasionally serve to
fee dative.

9- Theacensatw. is altogether indicated by

28 CASKS. CHAP. |.

HOB; the niK however, that it follows the verb, is oc-
casionally reversed. Thus m.the regular way. £ 3)
hw6 le, to obtain profit; A A ^ 1& tt jin jin
keae ft tsae, erery body has made money. In-
ifcmces where it is put before tKe verb are, ^t 5"
4$ ^ ^f ykftsze too fei leaou. all the money is
spent; f * ' X A ~ HL $t ft rcae pan
kung jin yth^feae cb£ chuh. tie ccmpradores and work-
men were all driven out (See the Syntax.)

10. The ablative is formed in various ways; thus
our Jy is expressed by -^fc pe, as ^ A JL P6 Pn
keen, seen by men ; or by ji e, as W Jj Ht ^
e kTh keang tsin, to enter by force; this prep"-itio:i.
however, more frequently describes the instrumentality,
like our irith; as Jtt >? jjt A ^ taou sh& jin, to
kill mea with die sword; H ^ JH A e vm- ^"h
jiu, to subdue men with kindness, g) yewr is rtot only
used to indicate the place from whence any tl <ies,

but ako serves to express our by of tt rac-

tion, as ft ft ~fa ££ *&. yew van? shang king
le, managed by the Hong-merchants ; <f ft ft ^
yew inun eh 'huh lae, come out at the door; dj J|

^j R yew yue taou man. from Canton to

Fokeen province. ^ vu. is also used to express
•ur by, ami tftrovgk ; as £ ^- ^ sze yu mio, fed
by the people; and sometimes;, but not often, -J- yu, is
thus employed, as ^ ^ ^ -J- ^ paou boo
gno y« ping, he protected rrie by soldiers. On account
of./or, or in lehalfofc is conveyed by |^ ^ei, and Ie6=
frequently by^Q tae. or ^ te> as J| vjfc Ife wei
joo tso, I do it on your account- ^ fi $$ X tae
heung pwan le, I manage it for my brother; ^~
^ ¥ ft *e tsae hae pa. afraid r.bout the child.

cr K ^ y^^^?St tsuD?r aBrl ^ tsze» ex-

ne;KS ^ ^ ^ * kea le lae. come

ttel- t < t ^ * * 5^ tsze

t" ae pin. frr- .vent

JT at, is convey

S t&Sv. J- ViK ^- yu, df .-£ bV

£ tf» Jt -£-

€HAP. 1. «5KSRE». 29

tsaou miih, there is no yerdure or wood on the hill:
X ft, 7 /v H j& fheen leaner vu jin chc
sin, heavenly goodness in the human heart; *fe £
^ £ weikewchoo ke, to seek it in oaeV
Ji >*t- jjL ^ff che yu che shen, tarest in extreme
goodness; £, S * *5r J* ^ £ Iten Ife^g
neen yu ching mow yft, for two years be traded in the
city. With, is expressed by _Jfe{ yu? and £0 timg, as
J^ JV ^B ^2 yn jin seang ho, to live peaceably
Trith people; A) ^ JiJ £\ tucgjoo ch'huh wae,
to go afcvr.-aJ. ;vith you: ^ kea? is used ic the same
manner. 0 •. v.sed before words expressing time,

are generally n as -jf- >^ :i ^ ^£ ^

^ Ht sliih yew uA tsae seun show fang yuhl on the
12th year he went to inspect the districts and mountains ;
tp " 8 & ^ *fr tseih 3^ ch'huh sing ching,
on that very day he left the provincial city. The use of
^ yu, to express *n is by no means of frequent
occurence.

1 1 . The vocative is cither not expressed at all, as
^ 3%T %* lao^ yay lae, come here, sir ! or by ^
yay, after the word, as ^ ^fc. ^ yu yay lae, come
hither Yu ! or by ^ o, as ^5 ^ f^ lang keun o.
oh my husband ! In conversation uj va? is sometimes
.put after the word, to indicate this case; Jj^ yu> and

?jt. e, are likewise used in this manner in good wri-
tings: ^ vf- gae}^a?and Ff hen, are frequently used
in exclamations, .and -j^ tsae, at the end of a sentence.
(See the paragraph on interjections.)

12. The student will readily perceive, that the Chi-
nese cases, as given above, do not exactly correspond
with ours, but further study will teach him where
to use these particles, and where to omit them, whilst
it will also :«rd him in the construction of seiner

ON GESD£R.

13, Chinese nouns, grammatically considered, have
no gender; but whenever the saUoe of things is pointed
out. there are generic terms to convey tihe sane: t\v

30 NUMBER. CHAP. I.

man beings, )&> nan, and $- neu, express male and fe-
male; for animals generally, & kung, and -#* moo; for
cattle in particular, $L mow, and >ffc pin; for birds, %JL
heung, and Jft. tsze; for inanimate things, (9»j kang.
[nasculine, and ^ jow, feminine: j?L keen, and $$
kwao, or )^ ym, and ]5§ ya?ig, for the male and female
principles of nature, have their origin in the popular
idea, fnai sex pervades the universe, and that all inan-
imate things partake either of one or the other quality.

14, The words above mentioned are never added to
the substantive, unless with a view express the gender;
as ^ ke, a fowl; || ^ ke kung, acock; ^ -Jg-
be mow, a hen; & jfy ^ & Wt ^ fr & %
tsze iween yang we heaou she pin mow chay, I do not yet
know whether these sheep are ewes or rams; i

^ ^t -^ — sang tsze nan neu ko yih, he brought
forth children, onfc son and one daughter. The appli-
cation of these characters is very easy; they seldom oc-
cur, and only when it is a matter of importance,
that the gender should bs known.

ON NUMBER.

15. Every Chinese noun may be expressive of tbe
plural as well as the singular, thus J\^ jiu, may be a
man, and in en; ^ neu, may he a» ox, atid oxen; 4f it
heo skng, disciple, or disciples. Unless it be distinctly
indicated that a wcrd has a plural signification it is left
doubtful. The plural form of the noun is pointed out,
when necessary, by the use of particles: we shall here
enumerate the particles which are used for the purpose,
beginning with the most common, and afterwards ex-
plaining them. ^ *&ng, #9 mun, ^ P^.ifl ^J»

"^ tsaou, -j^- tse, ^sd ^ chow, which a*e put after
&e substantive: so also ^ k5, fj| choo.? jl. chung,
t* fan, and j| shoe; sil of which are put b«fore tbe
:o6iUt, feud are strrctfy shaking collective adjectives,
though used to convey the sense of the plural; so also
l<eae, j^f ban^ ^ heu, and ^ too ; oak these
erally follow.
. Chia«waa feadb

CHAP. I. DUMBER, 3}

•

plural particles; in good •Writings they ate still more
scarce. IB many instances, t^here we should rssreiSer
them indispensably necessary, the genius of the C. hinsse
language, does not demand them at all; and on the other
hand, they are sometimes used, where they appeal- to us
superfluous.

18. The most common plural ^article is ^ t&ng,
as A, <^ jin t&ug, men: when two or three subje'cts
are enumerated, one after the other, this particle is affix*
«d to the last: as & A X ft ^ nuiig1 foo kui>g
^Iseang t^ng, agrieulturists and artisans: $ ^/ ^
^t 1§ A, -?• P^en ping» w&n woo, jshang1 jin tang,
soldiers, civilians, military officers, and merchants, (the
and is always left ouU) $^ mun, is more frequently
used with the personal pronouns, as 3$ ^ g*to mum, •' wsj
^ '1W j°o raun, you; sometimes in conversation it is
annexed to substantives: ^ pei, is employed when u
class is to be indicated, as g, ^ 6pei, th« wicked;
"^•' ^ tseen peijvirid >$t ^ how pet, predecessors,
and successors; ^ || ^ ^ wang e die pei, the
unjust; |^_^ ^ X tung pei ehe jin, equals; f
tsaouVand^S luy, are nearly of tbe same import as ^
pel, but not so frequently used; thus * ^ kwan
Isaou, means officer^ ; ar*d H |^ fei luy, vagabonds:
1^- tse, and i^ chow, indicate likewise classes,
and kinds, companies; -g- ^ WOo tse, we, is used by
good writers.

£). ^ Chung is very frequently used, as |^
]tf chung sbang, all the merchants, or the merchants:
§1 i chung sing, all living things, or .ereatiires,
mankind, |i choo, is also coro«t?on, a«. ^ 5fe i
lfii-" '4Ht jSi chuo seen sang keae woo piag', the tea-
chers are all well; ^ % choo ivith, all things, things-'
So also 4^ k6, as ^ A kojin, every man, or men;
-^ ^ k6 choo, every place, or places:^ slioo, has
nearly the same signification, as f| choo, though less
frequently used, as ^S i: shoo sze, scholars; %, fan>
is more coiimion, asjl A fan jin, all men, or men; /C
fan, is often preceded by $& choo, as JL *$) fsm
wuk thir>g&t or ^ ;t ?% ff dioo fa^ wub hteo

tfUMBBB, CHAP, Ju

^ Keae, and >&p to, frequently occur m good
Writings as well as in conversation: as A ^f j& :C
jin keae ehe cbe, all men know it; it, -?• Sf~ 3? %*
foo tsze keae hing tih, father and son both practiced vir-
tue; ift jt <f f t. jfc foo neu keae tae
mei mow, the women were all beautiful ; $} $L %$

>f> ^fc p&ng yew too pub tsae, the friends are all ab-
sent; 4ft keu, is most frequently found in literary com-
position, as /H fft % W M > ^ yew so
sze wuhkeu puh show Jbe received none of the things
that were given; ^ ^ ^ ^ mcen yang keu sze,
all the sheep died; ^ %$ 1jC 4-" ^eu,n ^e ^ett
tseuen, the weapons were sli prepared. ^ Han, is
less frequent, as ^ fy ^ ^ joo han tsung che, the
scholars all followed him,

20. There are a. variety of other modes of expressing
the plural: by repetition, as ^ & kea kca, every fami-
ly, families; 0 g jihjih, every day, or daily. By the
word j£ to, many, as ^* g A ^ tfe ^ ^
chung kwo jin to ch'huh wae fang, many Chinese go to
foreign countries ; or by the numerals Jj pihf and H
wan, (but ^ tseen, less frequently,) BS lg *Jr pih
kwah/ihe Mandariiis ; ^ ^ pih pwan, various ways;

H ^S waatih, all virtues, or virtues, || -^ wan she,
for many ages; ^ ^ tseen ke, a variety of plans.
There are some peculiar forms of expression, as ^ ^
sze hae, four seas, or the seas; i 3? woo fang, the
five points, or all points; J. ^ woo ping, the ele-
ments; i ^ woo lun» the relations of life; JL ^_
woo kuh, the various kinds of grain; JL ^ wootseo,
the different ranks of nobility; Jt «^ woo we, the five,
or various tastes : because the Chinese, either in reality
or imagination, assume them to be so many in number.
Such are also jL ^ kew chow, the nine parts of the
world, or the whole globe; $U % kew Jew> creatures,
&c. For excess and multitude, ^ keun, ^ yun,
and $r fuug, are often used, as ^ yV keun jin, many
met*.; $& $i *j£ $i chueu chih yuB tseih, the vessels
assembled irferowds; '^ |^ ^ j$t toau tsih fnng
',::,% the thieves rose up, as thick as bees : we find also,

€H4f>. 1, JSUMSEB,

jiu joo iin, or ^u & joe sa», men lifco threats
or hills, that is in great multitudes; or shorter without
-$$ joo, 6s JL li Jin san, or X $$• j*u ^ae? mejl *** con-
siderable numbers, like hills ami seas. Some, the Chi-
nese express by j|£ soo, and H' ke, a$ ^ %} ke kea
some sentences, and Ijfc. JJ soo jKh, several days.

21. An idiomatic peculiarity, which the Chinese has
in common with the Japanese, is the addition of a ge-
neric term to various nouns, for the sake of enumeration,
which we may compare to mil habit of sayitig heads of
oattle, *?w?m of silk, sheet* of paper, &c, But eipres*
sioHS of this kind are not of frequent occurrence witn us;
whilst in Chinese few isoims are found to which one*
two, or even three af these terms isuot applicable* We
shall here quota the most coimacm.

ii§ Ko, is applied to a great variety of soufig, espe*
eiallyin conversation; when written in the above man*
ner, it stands ibr living beings, but for inanimate things
it changes into ^ ko3 or the abbreviated fonn ^ ko;
fewwriters> however, make this grammatical dk l» «•.-.*-
tioin Thus — 1SJ X yihko jin, one man; '£. -|g
^aa ko pan, three planks; £. >f-/g^wsoko ping,
*ive cakes.

4 Chih, is applied to vessels, animals, and si
objects; as m? ^.|&&ze chih cliuen, or|& 1RI
chuen sse cliih, four ships; Z ^ ^ san chihyatig
three sheep; JL ^ %£ woo chih cho, five tables.

%\ Tuy,and ^ shwang, are used with all the nouns,
that can be arranged in pairs ; as — ^ ^[ yih tuy heae,
a pair of shoes; — ^ ^ yih shwang wS, a pair oi
stockings: and further, as in other languages.

j}4 Chang, is used for every thing that can be spread
out; as — ^ ^yihchang ehe, a sheet of paper; ^-*

$k ^ ^ yih changk&oushe, aproefematioB,(that
is, a paper containing one;) — ^ pg ^ yih chang
mun ]een, a door screen.

^> !Pa5 >^ nsodfor things that have a handle; as
7- IS fl yih pa taou, a sword; ^ j& saou pa, a
besom, and a variety of others.

^jL Che. is. used for things that are straight, in thr

CHAJP, I .

of Branches^ as — %$i Ht y& che peen, a whip;
—"LUT y& che chub, a flute.

$fc Teaou, very much resembles the former, in its
use, as — ^ gj| yih teaou shing, a cord; — f^ ^
yth teaou ho, a river, &c.

8H Keen, is used for objects that comprehend space,
&s buildings of every description: thus 3. $] ^ san
Keen Sh, three houses.

^ Tso, BOW and then, also $f tso, designates places,
as — M. ^5 yih tsoching, ac%; Z Jl 2> sari tea-jib,
three towns.

tfj* Fuhs or X peih, are used for pieces, or parts; as

• y£ jjf yih pe9i poo, a piece of cloth, rt llg ^ urh
fuh hwa, two pictures^

$ Keen, serves to enumerate things m general, as
""" ^ yih keen sze, or ^ ff sze keen, an affair;
gan keen, a case in law- in the former in-
chun, is often used. This particle is like
ko, arid^ ehih, and is often promiscuously em-
ployed; as — 'ft ify yih keen san, a jacket; % ff -wuh
keen, things; ^ ft ho keen, goods, &c.
^S!f Foo, means a set, a lot; as — «$ &. & yih foo
Khe keut a set of instruments, or utensils.

$% Kwae, is used for pieces, or any thing substantial

and sol id fas — ^>5 yihkwaebbih, a stone: S j^

j^sankwae yin, three doUars; jg twan, @j and yucm,

are used for globular things; and^ fang, for pk--.-es;

as /-^ ^ ^ ^ yih faog choo juh, a piece of J.H?:!;.

W* Cbh\, a gust, a dash, a beam; as — )*4 JL y2i
chin fungf, a gust of wind; — Rfc j& yih chin kwang,
a beam of light; — ^ $$ yih chin yen, a puff of
smoke: ^ chang. is used nearly in the same man-
ner; as . — ^ 'j£- yih chang woo, a mist; — tfjfr g
yih chang yu, a shower of rain.

K Paou, is used for bundles, as — £ ^ -fe yih
paorv rrseea hwa, a bale of cotton; — t£ ^yi
che5 a bundle of paper; so also #L cha, as —
yih cba peih, a bundle of pencils ; — ^L ^ jib
che, a bundle of paper: so also j^. so,

C Kea. for frames and machiner as — $i ^

CHAK -K NtTMBgU. 35

ih kea shwuy keu, a firfe. engine; — *j? ^ |
swan pwan,.an abacus.

* Tan> for things of weight and burdens; as
fa ^F yih tan hingle, a load of baggage— 4f |[
yih tan soo tsae, a load of vegetables

J?& Teen, for small things, drops, &,?., as — f^
yih teen she, a moment of time;.*- |fg g yih tee**
rain, a drop of ink.

)?C Twan, indicates parts, and sentences; as — g.
^j- ^ yihtwansin wan, a piece of news; — £!L >fc
yih twan te, a part of land.

4jf Kwan, enunserates things that are hollow; as
— ^ Ipt yih kwan. peihr a pencil; — ^ ^"'3^b.
bwah seaou, a pipe

|^ Kwan, »tke4$c teaou, enumerates law$5 -pip-jsceptg.-
potitions, business, affaire, &c. as — |gt ^ yih kw
sze, an affair;^ >ff -s ^ tsow tsingyih kwan,
memorial.

Jfe Koo, for shares and parts; as — |£_ i ^
sange, a share in some trading concern: —
yih koo shing, a bundle of twine

-ft Wei, and & ming, are used &r enumerating hu-
man beings; the former, however, is mainly confined to
persons of raiik; while \J yuen, is applied to gc^en>
meat officers. For instance ^r j/% E9 -^ fan r^acfii
szemiiig, four foreign sailors; J$ ^ ^ ffeseangkung
san wei, three gentlemen; X *l S ^-w^n kwan
yuen, ttirec civilians; ^L wei, is^ also used for
as ^L 1i paou wei, a cannon.
^ TsSiBg,is used for a layer, a story, a set ; as — /f
|g; y^b tsSing che, a sheet of paper ; — yf j?L .. yih ts&ng
<ira-t a layer oftSles.^ So also 't chung, for duplicates,
or terraces; as ^ ^ F9 urh chung mun, the second
daor; — ^ tfi yitr chung san, the first of a series of hijjs.

•Jf Peen, signifies a slice, a flake, a bit; — % ^ yih
peen seu^, a flake of snow; ^ Jf &- yib piiem eh6; a
bit of paper; - -~ ft 1% yili|K^n.8iu, a note.

$| Ko, as well as •& leih, are used For gr
as — ^ ^ yih ko chin •cboor-fe peaii: —
, a r»ia o

16 NUMBER. CHAP. I.

Taou,is used for a whole; as — ^ ^L JJJL yih
e ftib, a suit of clothes; — %? ^ yih taou shoo,
s -whole work: >fc~ pun, and^ peeih are used exclusive-
ly for books and papers ; fy keu, for enumerating sen-
tences &nd phrascB; yjf, taou, and »f£ te£, for edicts and
states papers; as ||- TJJ& £ ^ yu teg san taou, three
gdigte; "g show, is applied to odes; as — ~f(~ ^ yih
show she, a piece of poetry : |[ yfc, is used occasionally
for TtKK&s and papers ; HS — f[ ^ ^ yih yS che t&een.
a feund^ 0f gilt paper: ^ fuog, for enumerating letters:
as — if f| yih fung gin, one letter.

^ Kewn, and ^lio, for congregated numbers; as -^t
•ijz $; yihkeun neaou, a covey of birds; — ^ g| ^
yib feo fei t'hoo, a company of vagabonds.

1§ ling, is employed for carriages and caps: and
^ ckuec, for rows and files ; as — - *p -Jc qp yih chueu
ping tipg, a ftle of soldiers: Jfe dbin, or.^choo, for
trees v^ ko, for plants: ^. shing, and |^ leaug, fur car^
riages and sedan chairs:^ tnow, for plots of Isoid et
groimd;^ ling, for ccats or jackets:^ t'iow, and V
kl*QW,<br aoimalsor cattle: the latter also for swords,
and the former for affairs.; as — |g ^ ^ yib t*how
c^'hiia sze, a matrimonial affair: E peih^ for Jfeorses: -^
poo, for volumes, divisions: ]ff *;?.ou, for quiies of paper
;J$ man, for guns: 'M tsefe, for any thing jointed:®
, for things witta smooth surface; as -^ ® i^
5n$eti kifig^ three looking glasses: jf& te^, for sticking
es ; a$ \E ,tt ^* || san tea kaou jo, three plas-
w^n, for -enumerating cash: ^ tsan, for meals;
as - - * ^yih t«an fa»5 a meal of lice: ^c ching, for
lausicaftunes: $& <:huh, of polls: ^hw<i, for strokes: 7;
tea, for blo^s:^- hang, for rows and columns :^t ehoo*
tpr iaceDSe sticks: l^) hwuy, for parts, times: tl seun,
for decades: ^ tae, for stages :^mei, orating, for
pieces of fnfc: ^ kan, for bamboos: ^ chih, fer eases cf
books:*:; wiln, for rolls of silk: /C wei, for fishes, and
other ar^mals; Mi keuh, for chess boards or affairs: jfL
ke\^\ ?>r rollg, books, chapters, &c. jfe. tsanv for
•me .2y fbnued things ; lk Iea»g, for silver :

tr. ivosmm 37

22. The reader will no doubt perceive that most of
these terms are attached to nouns, to which they bear
some relation, either in shape or quaiiiy* and a frequent
perusal of the 'foregoing paragraphs will enable the stu-
dent to make a right use of them. We may add, how-
ever, that they form an essential part of the language*
and to omit them, when necessary, would be as great an
offence against grammar, as to dispense with our articles
and prepositions, when the construction calls for them,
Several nouns take a variety of numerals, and in most
instances tleir leaning is thereby modified. But en*
phony, and the structure .of the language, often rec;
them* where there exists no apparent necessity. The
Chinese say, foriustaace, ^ /£,' poo 'peiL 'for cioih:
ft $t fc JL lefiwei jiuheuag, benevolent brethren,
or gentlemen, &c.' In most cases, hoivever,
stnct enumeration of the subjegi is not
omitted,

CHAPTEE It

TRB A2>ia^iVS- ..~
POSITIVE,

1 . Ta E recsark previously made, that Chinese wor<fe
do not exactly belong, to ot*e particular class, applies
also to the adjectire;' tfeu*Afa? great, and/!»8eaou,
small, though generally used a& adjectives, may f>cea-
sionally be changed into nouoti, as Jt JL ke to, its
greatness; ^t ^ keseaou, its littleness; «o also into
verbs; as ^ £. ta che, to enkrge it, Sec. On the oAer
haud, many uouii:i occasionally assume tiie shape of ad-
jectives by being placet before other substantives, as
^ ^ t'Kfeea chaoi>, H*e c^sfeal dynasty, ^ ^ ehr
wuh, worfdly things g %. ^ che *$h Jia, vary
hardhearted.

3 COMPARATIVE CH AS*. Tt.

2. - It is peculiar to the Chinese language to unite a
great many words before nouns, wfcieb then assume the
nature of adjectives; as Jl ^ ^ i& A fan yew ping
teih Jin, *11 the sick; $ ft & '* * ' y ^ £ %
yew ke caa e chuen mow yih cne tsih, the duty of insti-
tuting enquiries into the trade of foreign vessels ; all the
words are here placed hi relation to J| tsih, as if they
were its epithets.

3. Much of the signification of adjectives depends
upon their position. The common mode is to place
them before the Boun ; as ^ A baou jin, a good man ;
if two or three precede, they do not require a connective
particle; as^ J*,&shenleang min, virtuous people; J^
.'Sfe vlt ;& tneiyen tseih nju, a beautiful modest wo*
man. Where there are more than two adjectives, fc
ehe, generally intervenes between them and , the sub*
stantive; |t M #\ ^ ^ 1? g paouyole hae cbe
kwan yueti, cruel and annoying officers. Two adjec-
tires put together have rf ten ^§ teih, or£ chay, at the
end; as J| )B % yaou yung teih, needful; j£ jj^ %
be yea chajr, very severe.

4. Wtenevcr the substantive verb is implied, adjec-
tivesare put after the aoun; as A 3& fa haou, be is a
good man; Hi 3jfe sing m^ng. he is of a. savage nature.
Phrases Kfce the following are u~e{£iK.y»it ; as j^ jfe &
;fc. t?h^i teche ta, the greatness .«of heaven and earth;
& ii ^ ^ sin leang che kwan, the extent «f gene-

-Iu these cases the adjective by its position as»
*he nature of a aoun, as hinted above. The for*
of epithets like $» $ nuih teih, woodea; £:

ir§ kin teih, goidten; and A $ t'heeja tefla, he

^ very common.

COMPARATIVE.

©. We know «f no language that adopts so
es of expressing the degrees of comparison, as She
•i.e$-e. For tbe benefit, of the reader we shall here
^^npifculate all that has «oiste under our observafioa^
&hd trtistiie will endeavour to femilis^ixe himself
phrases.

.' II. COMPARATIVE, 3$

6. Our more is expressed byjtkang; as Jt |£
Itmg mei, more beautiful ; when two objects are coin*
pared with each other the latter is preceded by &;pe
to compare; as . jJt # )*- 4l * g. It teze
aeu pe pe ueu k&ng mei, this woman is more beautiful
tfean that : jS kSng, is however, occasionally omitted;
a& 3% )t ik $$ --^.gnopejoohaouyih seay^lam
£»ihe? better tban you ; or jgfkeaou, is annexed ; as -Jfc

A ^ ^ .j£. ^ gno pe keaou joo k^ng baou? I am
better than yom Sometimes £ k&ng is preceded by

* % seang tay ; as >^ ^ ^g ^ ^ ^^ 300 gno
seaag tuy, gno k&ng haoti, compared with each other,
I am better than you; the same idea is also conveyed
by ^L iSJ keaou tuy. Furthermore, the word Jt k^ng
is found in phrases like the following; as Jt ^f ^ j|
kSngyewsbin yen, still more excessive; ^£ j§ ^ Jf
pe shang kang fei,. he is still more fat; ^ ^ :f_ ij

}& )fe Pe * b^e ^^n§ ^aou ^wo *sze> that is much better
than this. Ihere are also instances where jJtkSng, k
followed by^yu; as f Sf.£ $:£&&&$+
W kin neen che kuh Mng fung shing yu tseen neen teih,
the grain of this year is more abundant than the former
year; or a phrase like the following may be formed:
^tfiM^^^MM5tkin waii ho cha Hng tsaou,
shih fan chp kwo, we have taken tea earlier this even-
ing, and eaten rice rater.

7. Besides what has been already said it will be
well to notice the fallowing modes in which ?£ pe, is
used ; as $K jt jfe ^ ne pe t'ha kaoii, you are taller
than he ; ^ fa ^C *j^ ^ tsewT pe shwu}^ haou to.
wine is much better than water; x g VC 7^ ^ j^
^L ^ ji kung tseang pe puh tih mrag foo che yung.

the usefulness of the mechanic is not to be compared
with that of the husbandman; ^ *$t >t J^ ^ ^
pub kan pe shing cluing hwat by no mean superior to
the central flowery nation ; ^ ® ^fc JjS f® M •&&
chay ko pe na ko yu£ fa haou, this i& much "-beUer than
::-.;i,t , ^Jt 1^ ^ ?»- ^ ^T ^ san shang ta pan puh k*ho
pe, a pnvafe j^crchc,Titis inferior to tie chief of a fac-

'

40 cmiPAs&mB.. OTAF, v*.

ehay ko pe na ko yew ltat»a, this is better
that : isc keaeu, is often used in the following
as If 4$L |S£ tsuy keaon k'hingv a lighter critae ; & Q
JS_ J£ ttrh muh feeaou kin, ear and eyes are very Dear :
f$L ^1 M- Hi teen ke keaou kwau* to have the term
more extended ; J£ ^ * ^ ^L j^ keaou tseen yew
keeEWoo ts&ng, compared with what it was before, it
Jbas been rather less thai* increased.

8. ^ Yu, as well as \^ kwo, aire often used to con-
vey the idea of more: as^Jt'^ heen yu Yu,.tncre.
excellent than Yu ; -^ ^ Jjj^ kwei yu yin- n'ior^ va
able than silver; jfL ^ -S ^ jSt ^^ weyr^

yu tsze she chay. it has never been worse than at LU<-
present time. Instances of \& kwo> are ^k ^?- ^ 3£
joo haou kwo g better than myself; or with

jfc yu> as fy *j& ^jft ^ ,fc j oo haou kwo yu gno, the
same;. ;]>yg j&. ^jjL sea^u kwo yu e, less than ananty

* S 3r&1&\ It * * 4> $1 -^ J 3-

ke tfli hing hwo he ta kwo, hwo he seaoa kwo yu keun
tsze, his virtuous actions are more or less than those of
the superior man ; ^ ^ *& ]&, \£ {ghwan yaou
haon kwo chay ko, he wants it still better than this.
It is also occasionally followed by ifc £ yu shin, as
^ ^T -& i $& 1& £ ke wang hing kwo yue yu
shir?, his worthless conduct is still more outrageous; or
preceded by ^ mo5 as ^ jA/ i£ ^ jfc X kaoo
san mokwoyu ilieen. iliere are no a ills higher tban
the heavens '> $ &, £ 3f P^ twx> p>v;in iseer, not
more than half a year; ^g -^ ^ /^cbe shth kwo .j in.
wiser than the generality of men.

9. ^ Yu^ better, is often used to designate the com-
parative degree ; as jH ^ yu nan, more difficult ; -jfa ^
jj£ *$L hang chuen yu kwae, he sailed faster ; ^ ^f
1$ ^ yu }"u ^ie11 y^n? ^e^r &an boasting : it is* also
used withjfiRZ Ma, .after it ; as ^r ^ ^S Jg yu kea seay
yip, Btill more dissolute: and riot imfrequemtly repeated,
HS ^ i & $r ^ry^w sin yu yu, still more sorrowful, ot
^iterated in the following manner ; as ^ *|fc jfe $ y* -
hwae yu e, the -quicker *-hfe easier ; ^ X<|r-i|Tu kew yu

CHAP. W, COMI*A3AtIVK. 41

nan, the longei th

^ ^ 3L yii teia y u tlmnar, t?ri» y» pfth ciie, the
the effort and exertion, the le^s Ae chance of attaining
the object: ft yew, sometimes oct*;-T% as ;& if >j&
Vhofcwae, still more strange; ffe g j£ ^ y« * yew
shen, his fe»peeeh was still mor« .complete; 4^ "is JjL
•3- £ fa S ^ '-tfe wejook%w)f r^echeyewsfcing
chay yay, there is fcotkmg like tfe Confaeiu
fallness, Ifi this sense, on acceuot of the
of the s^nnd, $jt yu, is now and then iised; we meet
wiih^f yih;a§ £ ^^ih shinv more: exteasiTely;
^ yfe shen, more exc'dlent; ^ ^ :; ife A i^ ^ |g
k'heu shing yihyuen urh jib mwan, fee jyuvr^ycwi sepa-
rate yourself iro^.; the sages, the m<^$ ^ou *nU b*f purfed
up. ^ YuS* is also used in this mim*1 1\ «s ^' ^- yut
haou. better j ^ |% ^f ^ yu^ twig jufe t»i»9 the
he prospers the more he gives. It has also $!r f&, as a
fix; as M & iS- yug fi haou^ much better; ^^
31 yih fS haou leaou, still better* - ^. || fi ylti ft £&
meen, still more respectable. J^-^r Shing yn, is afeo
usedforr/tdr^/as J^ ^ ^| jfe W 1^ JiiS shing yu
pug kwang pih pei, £he light of the mdo» is a hundred
times brighter than that of the fire*flyv So also, but
seldom, jt yew. as lit Xj^-tsze yew haou, this is
Better.

10. To conij.are whole senteBces^ tiing, is used;
as .If. ft >p ^ f' « ning sze pCth k'hopei ies it i?
better to die tihan to deny one's principles;^ ir ^:
^ ^ If ^ K, ningk'ho show pin, pfthb'ho kow
tseu, it is better to atifler poverty, than to purloin; jg£
$£ £ ^ & 5jf 1fe"lc,.yu ke cliay yay, nine keen,
in ceremonies, it is better to be economical^ than pr<>"
feBe;f Jf flt * ^ ^ T .« * -fc ning fc'ho
siti ke yew, puh k'hp sin ke woo* it is better to believe IB
its existence, than to believe in its non-ex'Stence.

• II. >2 Jo. ./, is often used in comparisons, in various
ways; as ffi i9 ^ Jtu vl 1H. ^ na ko pah joo chay
ko haou, that is not so go*Ki as this; 53 ^ ^ ^ 3^
pa p8h joo hoo maag, ilie leopard is not so ferocious a<-
x yib

CHAP. n.

y^i. j*» to if the water became still deeper,
the iks i -still «crtlpp—* ^ Yih> is no v* and then used
fanwre. «B i*i f: J[ Ife -#^JzL ^ $r joo seu€ yih
Jbeaou,joQ:heii§yih%uQg, wtuterfhan SBOW, and red-
der .than IMood; ;£ -*5 3$ $& puhjoo Vhin Jaou. no-
iMng Kke diligent eSbtt: in this case it is used syno-
nymously with ^£ 16, which is often preceded by the
negative partible j| mo; as^ ^ 1f Jt .-»'& jo
sxe$ there is nothing better than to die together.
teiiees of the latter description are of frequent
yence;(see also the 4*egative particles,) as ^ jfc
riio tsze yew shin, nothing" exceeding this, or
-this: Jt A £ 3& ^m&tachekung, no greater merits-
J^ 3$ Jfr ^ {^HjoopuhLwang, we !rad better not go;
'* * 2t « T- :» ^ -H yu ke che taou, grift joo'
piih taou, it is better not to come at all, than to come late,
12. Of tne various ways m which our word more
is expressed, notice the following:^ ^ ^ tosanfun,
tliree parts more; -f- $ -^ &hih to rieen, more
than ten years; t & ^ ^iih lae neen, ten years
-n>ore; ^ — X kaou yih clrih, hi|hei one covid; ^§L
*-* if" twan yih tsun,. shorter one inch; ^ T7 ^ j^
pub hea wan Kin, not less than ten -thousand taels; -f
% ^r A shthyew yti jjn, more than ten men; -g-
^ ffe A pb yew^yu jiu, mi>re thai* one hundred men.
The comparator is also occastcaaally iudit;ate3 :by an
interrogative pronoun; as 3t i ^L ^ seen sftng shiih
heen, who is wi«er than you, Sir. As comparafees,
the following phrases may be cited: .Jt J^ 7 |&.:yu0i>
shing peih pe, a hundj^ times &*>re distant If ^ ^
•3T* - ^L I ^ >f - *t aE.twy teeih tih yew
shan yih pwim kamr, yew hae yih pwan sbia, crimes ac«
curaulated as tigh asmountams, and as deep as seas
2/L Hwang, frequently occurs to denote, how much
stored as >JL ^f p .^ hwang chmig two hoo, how
much more tbe central empire ? £ JL -3> U :'}5 >JL ^
A ^ 9L J^ % ^ ^t'been tseaypuh wei, urhyu jia
fcoo, hwang yu kwei hoo, heaven is not adverse, how
much less men, and still less^spirits^ $i Shin, is used
iJMhe 9&c& §>enset but less frequsstly; as

CHAJP, U, 'SUPERLATIVE 43

shin tszeyewteae, how much more -he: who has talents?
$1 H shin yu£, how much mare it may be saidf
Ttte reader mil easily infer from what has been said
the richness of the Chinese language in this particular*
and an attentive reading of the above paragraphs, will
enable him to ..comprehend the great variety of ways
by which the comparative is expressed.

13. The Chinese have maBy words Jike oof mr^

^ tsuy, siring shor^&t ts^g, has, and J| tsin,
some of wnich ais placed .befbre the adjectives^ and some
after 1hem» Thus J. $ ehe sirii>g^ extremely sacred^
^ i? ieih haou, very good; ^ Jf ^ ;^ show J3^
keih e, very much disgraced: Jf ^i 6 t^yung ttiing
e keihy^ery brave; ^ # ^ S teaou fe'hoofeeUi shins
he experienced intenae aufierijig; ^ ^ teay she
tremely excellent; ^ ^ 4fc H. ^. cietib yay e
eeedingly virtuous^ |f ^ J •& Sm:die,<3ia ya
respectful ;^ ^15. M .gae Vjissg die

ffyp8ififiil> ^ fi ^ ^hea^fl^cbe keib,he
joyed great hi^pmess; ^. ^ tsujr lo, ^ery much
^ ^ jf ^uy kwan km yaou» d" thd h%best
ance; fa 'fa tsuy .seen, the fhsfc ^. H ^ '•— tsuy wef
t« yihf the yery first; SRrJIt^ j& hing seas^tsuy
feeih, an exceedingly flourishiag condition; ]k ~vb &
^ ^ fi tsuy kaou cfee yew luh eh'hih, the highest
is five covids; ^ jt; shin s&e, very ri^it; ^ if shin:
haou, very ..good; # ^g ^ ^Lpfife ining che shin,
very dark; ^T ^ S ^ Vho-gae shin e, very ami-
able; £ Si »8 S ^ Wr ^ tsung ming shin puh
shin^ his intelligence is^uite iitjsurpassabfe; H fe
^ 3& w** sSralim.kfih> extremely bettutifal. Jssteaot
of ^ shin% 31 shin$ ig sometimes used, from the resent
blanceofsoundzas JE_ f£ sliiuchung, very important- ^
siiin wei klio liSn, very detestable;
8^ 4 ytngj very

44 OTraUATnra CHAP.

tsin yu* me first. The examples of /£ shoo, are ^ ^
shoe to, veiy many; jji JS- shooe, very extraordinary:
~ shooweihwS yih, very dissimilar;^,

shoo

seo tswsg, very neglectful; the latter instances are
of frequent occurrence in edicts. — ^ Ifth tse£, occur*?
less frequently, and then generally in company with £
rher or§L k'hae; asf^L ^ ^ Hf kliae tseg heaou *y\i,
Very digtinct orders. In edicts we skc find ^ tsung,
H- ke, and^ s&n> u§eA to exp^ss the superlative de*
gree: thus ^i If % ^ tsung chujig kew pan, ver/
severely frosecuted ; ^' ff k;*yrt:, ^ery . sirict;Jf#|iy|
«li5 le sin yen, the new laws are very rigorous, ^ft. H^n,
is iweii in roaversation ; as 4V ^|- ^l^ng tih ban, V.TV
; :^ ^f| ^ haou lib h&n, ver) giH'd. is its *v*d
Ji uin. is occasionally used, on account of the similar^
^T of sound

1 1,, There are various other modes of expressing
the superlative degree, as £ fhae; thus & % tTiae tof
too inuch;iB} JL ^i 7^ ho t'hae woo le, how very
mde \ $r Iff JL ^8 woo tsin§ t?has shin, very unkind;
,^S '- ^T •'*< & tlh hing t'hae two, very virtuous, A
Ta, is now and then used in the same manner; as;g
fc.-fr m yew ta fun peg, or Jt J, H.ta.pfib
scang t'huiig, very different, ^ — Te
occurs, as ^ — ^ ts yih nieaon, very Ssc^llent
7ft ting, ss J| iJ- ting haou, very good; also Jt
as X ^- shanghaou, very good; or J~ — ^ shacg
yih%t^ng haou. good in the highest degree; ^ jj^ ^
$*- tih 'she piih haou, very bad.

15.. ^L i^eang5 is likewise used, b^t auly ia a few
install c^s; as ft j&. lea-ng k^w, fer a coafflaernhbe
l«ang to, at good mBrsy« Ifeiis also 1^
heu kew, very long: or^ % heu to,
^? heu shaou, very few, $fr Haoa, is
in the same masmer; j^ j^F 5L isaou kew, a goo<|
while; and more frequently fc cenve^ation; as if Jfc
ptth, and less frequently jfr J!t. haoii snufa: ifauft
-I ha«m p6b ping gaw3 very peaceful;
pub bo mab, esceediugh

CHAJP, II. SUpttajUATlVS* 45

The idea of the superlative is afco .eiqi&essed by the re-
petition of the adjective; as j| Tl '.kaw> kao»V very
high ; P3 3$ ifiing raing, very bright: or by a«Jdi»% some
noun that possesses the quality indicated by the /adjee*
live ia the highest degree: as A H t'heea haoii, as high
asheavea^ very high; ^ J§L-yen shin, as deep as the
abyss, very deep;^, ^ ^ die sae seufij paper that
ith snow, very white,

. life Tsen&. is very often used before the adjee*.

to denote the superlative degsee; as $& ^; tseu^
nxeaou, very esceiieat; |g li tseui mei. extreTaely
beautiful; ^ H^ piih ahmg. and .^ l§ puh kT7Q, the.
forraer put generally belore, a^d tbe latter after the ai
jecthe3 are likewise of frequent occurrence; as ^ ^
^ $$~ fung shiog p^ih shing, insurpassaidy abundant^
X ^ »T H& Hk. j^n P^h feTio shing soo, an innumer-
able host; ffe ^ \fi. j^ puh kwo, very hot; or in a «oi£
structioo like the foUowing; >ft. il $ \& ^ J^
kwaesomokwo yuts^e, msutpassably swift; ^ §
^ ^ %jf~ chow g6 shin piih shing, desperately wicfeeA
^ M6- is also used in the same manner; as $ ^ ^
5^ mo tache kung, the highest degree of meiit; ^t
"R. M ..^ J^ ^ S &e kan tan mo tsze wei shin, flap*
teg courage not to be surpassed; or a phrase like the
following may be formed; as & $L t * VI "9T
^ ^ kekwanleang wooek*hokea e, or ^.^r^T
^x woo so k'ho kea, such generosity is not to be ex-
ceeded; ^ M * » ^. ^ jfc kwae kwo woo e fuh
keache, excessively perverse; or the .following J| jjt
||» % ^ .]Jfc tsan neo woo joo yu tsze, insurpns^bly
•cruel; ^^.41-^ ^f 3* %- ke hvyanheTro: r ;puh
keikhisjoy wa« uabounded ; so also i& cony^r^aJipn,
4^ ^ Mr T J?> ^ he hwan ieih kaou p6h "fib, very
joyful

17. Before closing this suTa^ect,. we may o%fiserve,
that the numerals ^ w&3, ^ tseen^ v^ f&h, and Hf* efeiE,
are often used to deu^te the superlative degree; tbe
tits* »£id last m»st fre^iiently; as j| 'i?- wan

ly good: f shili, joined with "?

46 TOftSCRfAl. FROiromr €HAF,

also used to shew the gradation of epitfaets; as

!$e Jim fiaou, somewhat gorwlr 3t '-^ ^ wo® fun haott,

tojctably good, t ^ ^f shih ftin haou, veiy good.

These are still a few phrases that in some rare ia*
stances express the .highest degree: as ^ 4t chaou
Ju cife leJJt, J -Jg dMV

ch*bfih cho0 luy,j^ ^g sae kwo, 0. ^*ae sliing^ att
of which denote any thing above the COIKTHOU: so also
tsuy kwei, Tery sinful, H |^ go kwei, mcst
-tf- kae she, the most ennnontiu the age,

CKAPTEft III

THE PEB80KAL

1. W'E may here premise, as <i general remark, that
peref3nai pronoun, when put befoie the sub^tan-
!+ er whenever it is followed by ^ cbe, or 6^ teih,
the genitive particles, becomes possessive; as ^ ia

gt*0 kwo, our country; -§: ^ jg ^ ffBo teih p^ng
yew* my friend; $L & ^ 3jj& joo che tso wei3 your ac»
tio^is. The saGie particles also that form the plural of
Ii03as, are employed in the declension of pronouns:- viz.
fifing, ;$l pei^fS. mutt5 ^ tsaou, and -fir tse; (the first
and third ^hy Tar the most frequent:) as $ ^gnot^ngj
> Jg| ^ .rotm. you. So also 4V S& ffi ?Q^ ieang
*i>ofef ?£ jj gnoleti; we all of tis; ^ ^ joa
all yfe' ^cefluas.
•2, The -{^-SBOURS .of the Stst peracri art

^»f y«*l^-:'y^ andvV -^.

and sometime* >|y lbvv are -ya^d, ^

CSA*. .lit. f>£n803?A£ PftQiWW, 4

3. The Chinese verbs often imply the pronoun, e
IB the Gxeek and Latin languages; thus B yue, he s~ii,

^" k'hat), you see, I see, or he sees. ^Hiee
there is BO inflection is the Chinese, at* in $be
languages, to indicate the person, it .must be found out
by the.context Nothing is so repulsive to the Chinese
ea?. and the genius of the language, as the frequent repe
tition of the personal pronouns. The pessessive is
likewise, in most instances, where our language TC*
quires it, omitted; an3 only where a stress is laid tzpou
the word, it is at all employed.

4. Instead of using 4Jie personal pronouns, the Chi*
neseadopi various modes of avoiding it, of which w£
shall enumerate the priacipal, whilst we refer the rea-
der for .the remainder to the Chapter oa the epistdar^
style.

5. For the first person, either the same is sobstt*
tuted, or the pronoun dispensed with; bj repeating
subject: thus ^ #: °f| 1j$ Jfc ^ Rwo wo.o

tsze sze,I (Kwo) have iio ability &r managing thi^ af-
fair ; *h $ & & A t f & m * m & M

wae shang foo ta jin -tae tseen, fuh ke chuy -fcoo pun
«hang, (lij the foreign merchant, repair to the triJjunal of
Your iiKcellcney, and htanbly ask that you will con-
descend tD look upon (me} the nierehant. In describ-
ing one'^ own office or profession, the term iir^imating
the tjame very often beats the prefix Jt pin; thus-gover*
nors in their edicts never .use the personal pronoun, but,
in speaking of themselves, put JL pun, before their title:
as fc. ^ ^ pun poo tang, I, the 'Governor.; ^ ^ ^
pun kwan poo, I, the BopjH>; ^ W HULU lieen, L
the district Magistrate; ^ J^ pun ching, I, the assis-
'taut Magistrate; so that in a Document of some * leagth,
where we should employ the ^onoui), perhaps 40 times,
in Chinese it would not CCCUT ^once.

6. There are, moreover, some ccBveafiorial Ibi'mg,
by which persons designate themselves. The most
common is j£ mov;, such an one, and % yo, the stupid

-one, for I Tfea Emperor iises JS1 ehia; tings, and
•pri&ces, !$* /v kwa jiu. S^-Xkoa jia. -^ ^A .5^

jife }in, and r >J;» <?- yu seaci*. tss&e; which te?m* &re-
perf*apB employed, in an greeted tone of humility, or to
mitigate the power of their sovereign sway, by the most
humble designations. A minister speaking to bis mas-
ter calls himself )£ cfei» : a Mantel wstatesman3c noo,,
&iteve; servants use >i» &§ seaou telh^fjtpo, and inferior
officers, *£ T> ehe h£a. In common parlance between
equals, 1 is expressed by $t i wan b&ng, and we by
#& 3£ wan pei; so also ^ te, I; andl^te pei, we.
The people in writing to their superiors call themselves
W- A tsuyjin, sinners; (which is also used in addresses
to the l)eity;) and^e, arits; scholars and unlearned
persons uee |^ 4 heo s^ngr or P3 i iiaiiii sSng:. A
tifoman speaking to her husband, calls herseiiVfe tst;ci,
eoncabine, or ^>f ^ pe tse^, handmaid: a son address-
ing his father denominates himself ^ *% piih seaou,y
deg€neratey or >)» jiL seaouurh, the little boy; adaugh-
ter uses ij* 3< seaou nytt, the little ^irl ; and an old man,
$t A laoufoo, the old fellow. Thus there are for
every rank in life, degradbg terms for expressing the
first personal pronoun; asm most oriental languages.
7, The same rule applies to the possessive; thus for
my father, brother, &c. the Chinese say & 3L kea
foo, the father of our family; or •. £ ^. foo ts'hin, my
Beloved father; ^ JL k^ heung, the elder brother of
•JUT household; and ^ ^ shay te, the younger brother
in our cottage. A husband referring to his wife would
say & A nuy JIB, the person witliin; 1^ 'Jr nuy ->h.ih8
the one at home: jjj^j& tse^ fang, the vulgar one in
theehamT>cr; -•*$ 0$ tih foo^ ihe lonely woman; 4*? $1
ehue kin^, llie d:;rl thorn: & ^ san tse, my clownish
wite: aod ^ l!$ tseew nuy, the mean? person within. For
my jrelntlon, a man would say % ^ shay ts'hiii^ the cot*
tage ronnection; and for ir?y son ^ & keuen tsze, the
puppy; for my family, jfl $L ban kea. the cold house*
!k>l<];!W my house, $ji ^ ban shay, 'the chilly cottage;
and for my servant, fr ^ seaou keae, the little $oy*
The r^Gc t common adjectives used for the gurtscses r,t*
self depreciation are| tseea, base;pe, vile-;

" as

CHAP. III. PEKSONAt PRONOUNS. 43

mean surname; ^ || pa kwo, our vile country; ^ ~fc
shay hea, myjow cottage. These humiliating forms 0£
expression are so interwoven with the Chinese language,
that the omission of them, and the substitution of the
simple pronouns, would he very offensive against the
taste of this extraordinary people,

8. The second personal pronouns are y$r joo, ^ nth*
and in conversation^ ne ; Jt nyu, is occasionally used
&ri$t joo> and^Jfene, ferine; on account of the simi-
larity of sound. In ancient books we find occasionally
75 fiae?J& j&, and-jiflljoo, for the second personal pro-
noun. Thus 7$ -£ J§ jg£ zmefoo nae tsoo, your father
and grand-father; Jl J$ )fr too nae sin, examine your
heart The remarks we have made above on the first,
apply also to the second personal pronoun.

9. >. As in the induce of the first person, there are
conventional terms used as substitutes for the setfosd
personal pronoun. Thus towards inferiors the name
is BOW and then used: equals aye addressed by ^ JL te
fe^ung, /brother; or^b |L seen sSng, teacher ;^g ^
seang kimg, Sir; fc $± jin heufig* benevolent brcther;
& )L Jaouheutig, venerable brother;^ JjS& tsun kea,
Sir:^ J: keashacg, ditto;^ ^ heungchsog, elder
brother :g ^ a ko/ brother;^ virbenng taev or &
^u tae beucg, e&alted brother: and to a lady ^ ^£.a
tseay, sister. All these ^erds infer the eminence or ex-
cellence of the person addressed, but are used in com-
mon conversation in the same way as our ytm. If a per-
son have an? official rank, that is then tneatroiied.

10. As honourable expressions towards superiors,
we may-^einaA thefollowiBg:^ A te jm, % k~ A
laou ta jra^jfe J^ jfc laou tafoo. whieh are used either
to venerable pei-sons, or people in high rank; as vener-
able Sir ! or your Excellency ! To teacbers, or ffentle-
men are applied ^t 4 seeas&ng, teacher; >g % i
iaou seen sang, venerable teacher:^ JL ^ laoa tae
tat, venerable superior; j^j£ ^ i tat lao^ seen
s^ng: great and venerable teacher; or^ ^l?jti sze,
venerable instructor. Spiritual guides are addressed
as ^ 3c shin foo, spiritual fatbei. rlo men MI

50 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. CHAP. III.

or people who have great capital at their command,
they use^fe ^ laou teay, venerable father; jL ^fjr tn
yay, great Sirei^ ^ laoa yay, venerable Sire! jL
% 3jjr ta laou yay, great and venerable Sire ! the latter
is addressed almost exclusively to Mandarins of high
rank, while to persons high in the military service,
JL ^ tae sze, great general, is used. The Emperor
is addressed by H J| ^ wan suy yay, the sire of ten
thousand years ;|| i shing choo, the august lord;
7§? T pe h£a, Your Majesty ; JL |t ^ ta hwang te;
the great Emperor; H Jt hwang s&uig, his Imperial
Eminence, and similar titles : in letters a variety of other
expressions are adopted, of which we shall speak here-
after. We may just remark, however, that 251 every rank
of life, there are certain expression to convey an idea
of the esteem in which one holds the person addressed,
Thus Coufucius called his disciples Jj> ^- seaou tsze,
little children ; or d ^ ^ urh san tsze, my fcwo or
three lads; while they, an the other hami* called him,
^r -J- woo tsze, our sage; or simply^ ts^e, sage!
There are a variety of other words principally combined
with ^ fan, a pattern, used for you, in highly flowery
language, as 3t fi, kwang fan, the bright pattern; £ f|
tae fan, exalted pattern; J| ^ yen fan, strict pattern;
and ^ |i| ioo fan, urgent pattern. ^ Yen, counte-
nance, seems likewise to be occasionally applied thus:
as *P l| tae yen, your exalted countenance;^^ e
yen, your proper demean our; andX ^ heung yen, niy
brother's countenance. So also ^ tae, and u tae, in
various wsytf; asj^ § ^ laou tac tae, venerable \Sir?
*pf 0} tae foo, your honoured name; -£? ^ tae kea,
eminent Sir; •& ^ tae ting, an epithet applied to the
ihree highest officers in the state; and a great number
of Other expressions. Several persons are addressd
by Jr»J 'Jjt |e£ wei, gentlemen! instead of f§ <^ urh
tang, you.

11. One of the most common words used instead
of the possessive pronoun of the second person is 4^
ling, honourable; as ^ )L ling 'heung, your honourable
brother; 4" ^f' Inig tsun, ys^ur honoured father; -

CHAP, III. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. §1

ling tang, your respected mothei ; 4^ |p ling laag, your
honourable son ; ^r -|£ ling gae, your excellent daugh-
ter; likewise called nf & tseen kin, your treasure;
so also ^ Jt ling .^hing, your good wife; ^ ifl ling
chung, your favoured concubine. In the same sense ^
&wei> nohte; and 'I? tsun, honourable, are also used: as
jff Hj kwei kwo, your noble country ;~^| J| kwei
k&n<r, your noble age ; ^ %* tsun ming, your honour-
ableiiame;^^ fang ming, your fragrant appellation.
A few terms less used are Us kaou, high; i shtn)g^ ex-
alted; and^f! shing,lull: as ^3^ kaou sing, your ele-
vated surname; jt ^ shang loo, your exalted house,
§? ^ shing pang, your prasperous coustry, T he rea-
der will not fail to remark, that all these adulatory ex*
pressions are jiist the opposite of what is in use for the
first personal pronoun, where every epithet is employed
that caA convey the id^a of inferiority: so much for
Chinese politeness. ;

12. The most 'common word foi Uie *hird pei^om»j
pronoun in literary composition is Jt ke, he: or Jt A
ke jia, that man; which is used in all cases, and stand*
for he, she, it, they, them, his, her, its, and theirs ; with-
out the addition of the particles that convey the idea of
the plural Thus Jj£ )9f % ke so wei, that which he^
does; Ji |fc ^f ^ wei ke so bw6, was led astray by
him;jf: "^ ke yen, his of he* words ;^ 3f ke chung,
in the inidst of it. In conversation ^ t'ha, is employed;
while the plural is formed by the addition of #5 mun.
^Pe, that person, is more literary, and is likewise
used like j£ ke, but of less frequent occurrence : f^ e,
he, may be found now and then, and is turned into the
plural by the addition of ^ t£ng; as f^ 3£ e tS«g, they;
this word occurs frequently in legal papers and ^edicts*
but not elsewhere : the constant use of it in our transla-
tion of the BiWe is unsuitable : ;# nae, occurs in ancient
books: as 75 Jfe'jffc T 3t i^ nae tseu hwuy tea waa
woo, he assembled the «jvil and military authorities
under his banners. There are also two local words foj:
the third personal pronoun: viz. *& keu. cud- 31 1^

.
£2 RECIPROCAL PRO^OU^S. CHAP. IIL

eu nung. Otherwise the nouns are put, rs # Q nyu
,$he said; ^ ft po ts65 the servant did it,
\ 3. For the oblique cases >/T che, meaning him,
, it, or them, is- the most frequent; as ^J ^ ta che,
heat him, her, it, &.C. jffe >j£. ^ keu cfeuh die, drive
Item away. In ancient hooks we find a possessive
:v>ttnj^keu^, which is exclusively used for this
ase: as ^ JpL ^ I^Jfc, ffc chang keu£ tih, paou
|eu£ wei, he who preserves his virtue, maintains his
throne. Otherwise^ tsiE, own, and |t ke, his, are far
wore frequent. It Tsze, may occasionally stand for
he, or she; aiid d% she, for it; as ^ X JK ^ seaou jin
fan she, the inferior man reverses it. In a construction
like ^ |f| ^ foo tub chay, he who reads, ^ foo,
iDight he thou ht to stand for the third personal pro-
noun, but more 'of this under the relative.

As a general rule we have remarked, that the third
nnal pronoun is less in use than any of the others,
and that the na me or noun often 'replaces it The
language heing devmd of grammatical rules, as we
understand them, nmch obscurity is thus avoided.

14, The reciprocal pixmou&s are H$ tsae, £ ke,
fi & teze fee, g |^tsze kea, ft jf- tsse shii),j^ ^
pun shinj§ kung, J| shin, and^tsin. These are
joined with the persaual prooouns; as^c ^ 2*- gno
ts^e ke,l myself; & j> ke tso, he himself did it; ^
^ tsin lae, he himself came ; & ^ 3k P^a she gno, or
ie gno pun shin, it is I rayself; ^ ^c
teze kea woo t&een^ bt htriiseli bas got no money;
ts?;e hae tsze ke, %e injured himself;
tsse mwan tsae tsuh, -self-sufficient, ^
wet t'heen tsze, being himself Emperor;
foo tsin kung k^ng, my father himself
Jghefl; ^ ^ J^ ^ tsze shit? puh tung, he himself
DT move; ig d ^ ^ ^ tezeke wooleang mows
; jeKes ha^a uo feasible plan; ^ Ijr.t&m pedh, an

CHAF. ill. S>E^IO»STKA^JVE PRONOUNS, 53

autograph ;^$i ^ tsin show* bis owaa hand, ID opposition
to that of aiiOtber;^ J^tsin yu, self praise; H C ? J$
kungjsiri pae woo, be himself bowed and dancedy j}§
3§j|; 3£ ^' kung tsin ke tsze, he di$ the work himself;
3$ $3 3& j? gfl° kung woo teih, 1 myself have no
strength ; ^ J|| wei kung, my trifling body, is an
Tmirible expression for myself; ;fl| H — J^- tub tsxe
$u* jin, I myself alone; |J ^ tsge .sbe^: self-righteous;
}g- ^ k& fcsge, each one himself £>ffe ^ pe tsge, others
together with fmeVself;-££ — ^ >^ ^ '!^ jiayihke
cbe gae tsang, to follow oneis own partiality or passions;
^ ^ i r!S ^ & ^ A che yew ke, urb pahche
yew jin, to advert merely to one's ownself and not to
advert to others: i. e. selfish. The above will eluci*
date the manner in which the reciprocal pronoun is ap-
plied. Whenever there is no stress upon the personal
pronoun, it is omitted.

15, The term used to express mutually is-tS seang,
with its compounds 5 3$ boo seang, fj ^| tsze seang,
$3| ^| te seang, ;$ j^ seang ying, ^g ^ seang tuy,
%Q & seang e,^ || seang ehing,^ £. seang boo,
together with $C P^» ^L ^ze$ and ^j kin; ag ^@ ^f
seang haou, on mutual good terms ;jt $S %& ^ hoo
seang ho rniih, mutual harmony; >|i. ^ ^g Using
tsing seang y ing, dispositioiis corresponding to each
other; ^ -^ jfg |jj fookwei seang tuy5 riches and ho-
nouis which correspond to each other; 5$^ ^ ^ ^C
>^ pe tsze hoo e chang, this and that man depend on
each other ;^.)Jt ^" ^ pe^tsze yew tsuy, there are
faults oa both sides; g Jj_ tsze hoo, mutual regard;
~~ %8 )fy ^ M M jr|» ' tscl kill yew seang kwan,
there exists oa the wole a mutual relationship.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

!6c Hie demonstrative pronouns are Jfc tsze,^p sze5

^tiiize,^ she,^ chay, ^ foo, andjft ke, for, this,

the latter also for fM/rwith^S" dhay^ pes and>SfJ na,

for ffeil. These; ate dwnys put before the nouu, except

54 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS CHAP. HI.

3ji chay, which is strictly speaking * relative pronoun.
Dfc T.8«e, and <dt chay, haw frequepljy the sign oithe
plural afct^hed. The following examples may illas-
trate their use.

17, j& lit ^ -trTsze cbuftg wang hing, this sort
of disreputable conduct; jit ^ .f> ^ ia/e tang go
t'hoo, this kind of worthless fellows; Jfc 2: ff .& tsze
ehe wei yay, *his is what wi<s srm! ; ^ "»[ jt wang; yew
tsze, I hope for ibis: ^1* Jfc yu tsze^ih fchis place; Jfe
^ tsze how, from this time; jgjj 4% s^e how, after this
time :i& $L joo tsze, thus;^ sze, is rather sparingly
used; it occurs in the phrases $ft ffa sze she, at this
time; /£ j&f* ffi j|[ tsae sze low shih, in this mean
"house; ^ $f 3T Ht IS: He sze che weiyu, is not this
what was said ? ^" ftf Tg" -ftf ho sze wei sze, why trans-
gress in this instance ; JC jfe JtP ^r t'haeyojoo sze, it
is in general thus; $Lff yv flf Pe h° ji^ sze, whdi'
man is this. $£ Tsze, is not exclusively used as a de*
mott$tr&tivc7 bnt is sometimes taken to form adverbs;
^^ J|^ tsze lung, I have now received; i& ^ J| ^f*
>f; H teze shih yu6 shih liih jih, now in the tenth
tuonth, on, the 16th day; or ^ tsze, *§£^t§" tsze chay,
is frequently used at the opening of a discourse, es-
pecially in letters when the real contents are broached:
'?* 0% kiu tsze, now; ^ *$& neen tsze, thinking about
tbis;j{L "^ tsae tsze, here;^^| tsung tsze, from
hence* ^ She, occurs in the following corabinaiions;
as ^ %she she, this time: ^* ^-yu&ta. or J ^ yu
she, thus; ^ H ^ $f t&ngsbech^sh^or ^ 4 -^

tyu she die she. at this thne} Jl A she jin, this niaa;
•% yuug sV\e ose xkiii.;-^: jfc sh^ ^. on this ic'
count ;J|^J|| tbe tefti, thea;J^ ^ she et therdbr^
^ >i; joo she, thus; ^ -% tsze she^ and A .Jjr yu she,
from hence ;^ ^ ^^ she so hau chay, it is this
tuac he hates,

18. \|, ^ Chay sze, this Business ; 3, fSi ^/C chay
!;rj jin, this man; (conversational) ^ ^ chay she, afc
*ii>$ time; ^f ^ cfeay Ic, here; ^ ^|chay yar,g, in this
manner; g^^ chay p wan, in this way; and ]l"^ chay
S^g, these' ^ lie. otherwise the third personal pro-

CHAP. IIJ. RELATIVE PBOTCOUNS. 55

, is frequently used for the demonstrative, especi-
ally in good writing: as^ A kejin, this, or that mun,

Jft $r kesze,this;jL ^ WJ^fke jo ho shing: yen,
how can this be described in wo5ls;fj .£ & Jf Jfi
urh ping rain ke yung, you soldiers and people are
using this; ^ ^L ke yay, that night; jj^ ~p- £)* >£ ke
shwuy ehe ohe, who can know this ijj; Chay, conveys
our idea of the demonstrative, in all those eases where
it is followed in our language by s relative; as those
who, that which: thus))j| ^r^ shun woo ehay, those
who obey me; ~ J§ ^ frf jfe 1jfc urh chay puh k'ho
tih keen, these two things cannot be had together; ^

% M ' $(* J* %i Z~ gae woo chay, gno yih gae che,
these wha love me, I also love them.

' 19. $L A Pe jin, that man; Jfc - ^ ffc— ^-pe
yih she, tszis yih^he, that was onetime, this is another;
# ^ tsae pe, in' that place ;^ ^/Cnajin, that man;

3p Bl" jH na she how, at that time; Jfj$ fg ^- na ko
tszc, that ]joy;f(5 1® A ^^ fij St f$ na ko JIB
puh she gno sM teih, it is net I who killed that inan.

As demonstratives might also be considered words
of the folio wing class, H^ wei,$t wei, and ;itc v/ei, when
combined with BJ" she: as^. w weishe, at that time;
also<^ ^- kin neen, this year;^> ^ pun yue, thk
month. In like manner ;% || yew choo, it is thus;
and several others: but as they only convey these mean-
ings in those particular instances, they cannot lay full
claim to this name. The demonstrative is occasionally
dispensed with in sentences like the following: as -^

W $ ^ Jjf Ju g^e gae yu chay, I love those who
love me; ^J «^ *R ^ t§ A g^ hSn h&n woo teib
jin, 1 hate those that hate me.

RELATIVE PttONOUNS.

20. These are only two, viz. $f so, and^ chay;
but their use is so much varied, that it is necessary to
give a number of examples in order to exhibit their full
foiee aad meaning.

DO RELATIVE PRONOUNS. CHAP. 111.

21. Thus J$p so, m the following -sentence jfr jfa
5ft H- pelh yew so sze, lie must have something of
which he thinks; $j |f fl H so wei full 16, that
which is culled happiness and pleasure; jgf' ^ J|- ^j?f
so yew ban keen, all those who are traiterous Chinese;
% ffi it & *j$ woo so yaou che wuh. the thing
which I -.want, ^ % ^ J$i /V so wei clifey pe jin,the
man wholes it; j^ £ ft &&'& $T & she ¥
so e, kwan ke so yew, look to the motives by which he is
guided, tibe principles from which he actstjjt _^f tfjjr,
ke so yah, that which he desires; $f <lj ;i|f -M IfF
so wei chay ho sze, what is it that he is doing? j|J ^
^f 1% 18, ^" "chaouting so e lae chay, the man on
whom the court depends; A Jif ^jin so han, that
which men hate, or hateful to mankind. The word $f
$0, is sometimes used with the passive construction, as
In the following instances:^ -^ j3f ^ pet'hasohae,
injured by him; ^ if A ^ ^, wei foojin sohwo,
it was Ms wife that led him astrry ; or led astray by his
wTife. it is often preceded by j& woo, not; or M ho,
what; as $k 3ft ^ ^ woo so puh wei, he allows him-
self to commit every thing; literally there is nothing
that he does notvdo; -H- J^i >P tc ^00 so puh n£ng,
there is nothing.tjiat he is unable to do; omnipotent;
"H" $% 3\ 31 ho so puh che, what place Is tijere to
which he does not go; ^g* ffi jfc ^ hoo so puh koo,
whatis^here upon which he does not bestow attention ?
o- where does he not look*? that is, he looks every
where; or thus JL ^ $f ^ fan ke so yew. all that he
has, or whatsoever he lias; jl j3f ^ ^ fan so mae
mae, whatsoever he bought and sold; & ffi ^ ^
fan so keaou yew, all with whom he associates; j3f )5. so
e, means the motive from which an action springs ; also
therefore ; ^ ^ so t^ng, that which is suitable, one's
doty. This pronoun never adopts"^ t^ng or any other
plural particle. It may, however, be preceded by *&
cfee, as in the following sentence; B ^ $% ~|J ^

^C* 2l ^f ££ ii^ow °^e so sung f®» s^ che so che,
what is- recited by tbe ii>^.th is not always that which
is known t\y the

CHAP. III. HKLATlVi: PRONOUNS, 57

22. The use of^- chay, is still more varied It
oftfcn serves to form substantives for other words: as
shen chay, the virtuous 1. e. lie who is virtuous-;

h£o ehay, the .student, i e. he who c-;tudJes;
$ 4f £ & 4fc she heo yth chay che kwo.
this is the studying of the Yih-king to excess:

, -4f A tfi ft x£ gae jin chayjinh&nggae ehey he
who loves mentis always beloved by men;j& ^ .3^
j& "If xT 'J$T tsze shen wei ching chay che sbuh, this
is the contrivance of those who govern well; so also in
explanations and definitions: as & ^- 4|. ^ ^R shan
ichay tseiiea .cheytiec, hills are the sources of fountains;
X jfc ^ '1* "IT & tih chay ;jm ehe so tan^
i^ yay, virtue is thst which ought t^ b^ prmriecd by
men If i-t refer (o something going boibre it i? pre-
ceded !>y & yay: asr| & $3 sharig yay ch-HT, the a-
bove merchanr. Phrases like the following occur fre-
quently in the best writer.- ft« * ,# ,4f "M- ^ Kik
& 4^ A it ^ ^ *- fooheao
jin che che, shen sh&h jin che sze chay yay,
(y consists in skilfoHy carry ing out people's design, rnd
in appropriately recording their doings, (that is, a fihal
child realises 'the intentions of his parents, and furnishes
n continual comment upon their actions.) Mai^k also
the following sentences: as & H ^ ^ ffi 7^ ^P
U « j2T-'>fe min jih tseen shen, urh puh che wei che
chay. the people daily advance in virtue, without know.
ing that they do so'; £ ^ ££ j£ ^ ^ jl& % * ^
4^ wei yew heo yang tsze, urh how kea chay yay\ tlr^re
are no (femalts^who (first) learn to nurse children and
afterwards marry ;•$& j£ .% ^ ^ ^- |f ^ Jfe joo
tsze chay, tsae keih ke shin chay yay, thus calamity will
affect his person; ^ ^ ^ ^L tih ch&y P^n 7ay» virtue
is the main thing.

23. The relativ. is sometimes understood, in

which case ^L che, a^ 1 ^ teih are used. Thus ^ ^

^ ^ woo yew che-i* ih, the ink 1 have; 4? >fx 1^

"Ifc "SL ^'^f'*Tfc vg"0 puh sin t'ha shwo teih sin wan,

I do not .'believe uie news he tells:

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS, CHAP.

gae dbfc nyu, the woman 1 love ; and sometimes the a-
bove named particles are omitted: as^ ^ A .3t $£
we« yew qin keih t?foa there is none to equal him; ^~
3£ dt k'han hoo keun szt% the soldiers who beheW
the corpse.

24. The principal interrogative pronouns
shwuy,jffe shuh, and t? ho; each of which is used in
various ways, as may Be seen from the following ex-
amples.

25. |pL |£ Shwuy kan, who dares ? H A shwuy jii>,
what man ?^% ^ she sh wuyr who is it? ^ ^ ^ ^
nae teih shwuyho., to whom is it of consequence? ^
^ ^ shwuy che tsze, whose son ^ M §

iea tsze, the son of whose family ? & $fl £, ~jfc
tbjse wuh she shwuy teih, whose are these tilings? ^
^ ^ shay gno ke shwuy, who would pass by me^?
~fjl 1& >§, she shwuy che kwo, whose fault is it? ^
^ ^Spuh keih joo keih shwuy, if he does not give it
you, to whom will he give it ?".Jt ^ iljk ^- ke chung
shwuy haou, who amongst them is the hest; or in con-
versation 1& IffijfjL H 7^. ^ t'ha mun le t'how shwuy
haou, ditto. ^ "^ |jt puh lun shwuy, whosoever; ^
^ ^ 13 woo wun sbway ho, whichsoever; ^ ^j
S puh keu shwuy, ao matter who.

26. ft |t Shuh n^ng, who is able ? or £ ^ ^
^J ke shub n^ng che, ditto. ^ *& ^ ^ we che shuh

she, we know not which is right ; ^ ^ ^ ;§ &shuh
puh k5ho jin yay, what cannot be borne ^J^ ft ^- ^
>?: keun shuh yu put?, ^euh, ^ith whom would Your
Majesty find a deficiency ? ft Jff f^ E ^ -shuh
yi?er^ shuh che yay, what can he wish for that he does

obtain i$V fjf ^J ^ ^ ^L J^-kew nae hing-
sken chay shuh shing, who is it that excels in virtue
and patience*? ^f ^ ^ ^ ^ Ji ^L -& t'ho seaou
shuh shin, k'ho-gae shub shin, can anything be

acuiycari aBythiirg be more lamentable ?

CHAP. III. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

27. 13" $ Ho sze, what business ? $t it /*J
ke kooho tsae, what is the cause? t*T ^ ^ ^f
ht> yew yu gn-o tsae, what is that to me ^^U -f* "fc
yu ho, what caii be dane for me ? ^? 5t £p ,"!%" ke
nring ho, what can he do against fate ? ~Jfe 5- A, $?f joo
thing jin ho, flow ean he rectify others? 1*T 'jH j£ ^
be tih che shwuy, what a falling off in virtue ! ^ ^ /^
3jf sheborjin cliay, what man is that? jlc ^ ^f A H
keaou hwan ho jin urh, to whom did you restore it? j|r
H ^ 1^ j oo hwan hoping, what 8ickness have you

fot -? % % ^ S ^T ke yen chay wei ho, what were
is words ?f^T vft ho kaon, how high? or what is the
"height? or ^ ^ ^ kaou- ke to, or ^ ^ -f? k^,^
joo ho, how high is it? 3^ ^T "wei ho, -fa" ^ ho koOj
fi ^ jin ho, all sigwi§r why ? fC jE ^P jfe ho
joo tsse, how is it come to this extent'? f*j ^p ho joo, how
is it? at the end of sentences, and ~$$ f?f joo hc^, bow ? ia
what Titaoimn? at their beginning. ^ ^" ^ .Ife- Ho
yew bo woo, who. has, and who -has uoi ? frj Jfl ho
ch'hoo, what place? where ? T. It" ^ A pttb hxn ho
jin? whosoever; ^ffc^ W A-^ peiehay ho jin sse,
what is that man ? IP| ^ ^ ^ w> ^*n che yewf what
n'eed of vexation ?

28. There are other words Which crccasiottally
stand as adverhs, and at crfher times as interrogative
pronouns Thus B^ chow, occurs in a verjt few mstan*
ccs 'for vdvo^ as ^ Xfp l|^ Jft t89ie tseang chow e.
whom will you depend o'a? 3£ j% shin mo, tar-ff ^
ahih mo, with ^ ^ ts&ng mo, or merely & shia, are
of very frequent occurrence in conversation. (See the
chapter on interrogative particieSv) Thus *ffc -ft j^_
shwoshin mo, what do y»u say ? $ ^ £l -fgj ^ Jf

t^ joo k%?m cbay iko ts^ng mo yang sho<a^ look at
;, and see what kind of hook it is;J^ 4lF jfe yew
shin na», what difficulty is there? >£ T£ ^ ^ ^*^L
•|t j^ puh 4rhung tih tTia shw6 ^hin "mo, I do not un-
derstand what he says. j8JS ^ Na ko, occurs for nlwse ;
as ^ 3f$ ^ ^f ^ ^" she na -k^ te^n show pei}%,
writing is this? ^ j?f — >fg} A, »he na

60 DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS. CHAP. III.

kojin, who is that^ ^ Ko,jL k'he, and ^ yen, are

occasional!', lis'j'i bistead of 19" ho.

DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS.

29, They are ^ko,^-, mei, aM & — rhfih yih.
The use of each of them will be beSt illustrated by ex-
amples, Thus^r H ko kwo, every nation;^ "f"
jji ^ ko yen ke che, let eaeh one speak his own opi-
nion;^ fe ko sih,^f all shades, or descriptions ; ^- ^
kohang, every article; ^j A ^ ^ >$L ¥ ^an?jin ko
yew pun sze, of those two, each one is endowed wiflk
talent ;-§~ $T £ 'it ko yu ke tang, every one in his own
clan; 3§r — A ko^yih jin, 6f each one man; ^~ A J^
JlL k6 jin ko keen, each has his own peculiar opinion ;
^r ^?r jit J$I k6 k6 cha pe^, differing from each other;
jg- Ijffi & ^ k6 pan ko sze, every one managing1 his
own business; %r ^ & $} ko hwan ko teih^ ]^t each
one have his own; fr A %$ ifc-^ft ko jin too e ke,<each
one adopted flie plan; g£ ^g ^ ^ suy searig ko ko,
each one for himself; & ij v^ » ko tsze hwan chen,
every one fought at random; single handed ;4*- 1-& ko
keu5 each or all; ^ 4^ ko kung, all unitedly; -|r ^ ko
eboo, every whete. So also ^ ^" chuh yih, each;
^ ^^ ® S$ 5«e yuh chuh chuh, he desired each one in
particular; ^ 5 ^f H chuh jih so seu, what was
wanted every Say; $5 *& chuh keen, every kind. In
like Hisnaer we have 4|- A mei jin, every man;^ —+>
ffi ^ triei yih keen sze. every affair;^ g| mei she,
each time; ^ & mei mei, always;^ ^ ^ jlj^ met
y&h s^ang how, I have frequently wished to wait
upon you in person ; 4|- ^ ^ mei sze wan, he enquired
about every matter.

30. Both is expressed in the following manner: ^
^ A ^ J^ ^ ke urh jin" keae seay tsze, both of
them are writing; $J f!§ |^ jfe m leang ko too j en
ping, both of them have contracted a disease; $£ j?*}
^& ^g| i^-^J. i*ha num learig ko lingle, both of theta
are ^brewd; ^ ^1 ® ^ urh kung yung sin, tb-}

CtfAP. Ill, INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 61

both exerted themselves;^ Jf£ jfjl 38. & hemig tc
keen fen fa, both the elder and younger brother have
transgressed the law; $? $L f£ 'jjjfL y leang wei shih
fan leaou, or $j $L fit f£- /gt leang wei keu shih fan, or
^ 'fe /f5L.;S too shih fan leaou, you both have eaten,
yfc 3% -§- ^f ^ j°° S110 k® yew che, we both have
otir several intentions;^ 1* Jl ^ |S 3t 'ft ^
rauh tseang jru «teih tseang ping 1^6 sdang, both the car-
penter and smith are at work at the box; 5c 5"{ ^ jg|
foo tsze.vkeae taou, both father TIIK! sou are come.

31, JSither m&*ieither are expressed in the follow-
ing manner: ^ -J- ^ 3^ ^ fp^ hwu tsze hwo nyu
yew tsuyy either your son or daughter is guilty; ^ J^
i^ ^ ^- ^ pufe she joo tsew she t'ha, it is either
you or he: or $ fa $? ^ ^ J°° tse^ Pe? if ^ot you
than he; or J^C ^f jSfv^ ^r j°^ chung peih yew yih,
between ysu, one -must he iaipKeated; ^ ^ ^ j^
^C ^ ^ i hw£ she keaou sze hwo she e s&ng, he
is either a teacher or physician; ^ ^ ^p X fg jg»
^ — urh pang she jinkeen peih yew yih, it must be
either of the bystanders.

Neither is -formed by affixing the .negative- par-
tide: as li fin ^ & jflf 1% J£ g. c?^y ko pub
she na ko puh she, it is neither this noi thai; ^ $3 jjj[
& • *§* M Jm leang f he meen keae woo, he has neither
money nor respectability;^ $fc ^ ^ pe tsze kiii fei,
neither • the one nor the other; or JL ty $r
chung woo yih, neitiier one of the two; ^ X
^l&angjin too woo kwo, neither of them is guilty:
ffi -fH .?! *e leang ko piih she, 5t is neither cf theta;
^ t^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ t'ha iri?in ^ang ko too puh
tuh? neither of them wept;^ d -g| %* ^ ^ ^f^
woo urh puh chay keae uuh tso, neither of us servants
will do it

IJ*DES1NITE PRONOUNS.

32. We shall enumerate the principal characters ustd
fori uleiinite pronouns, and the various modes in

thid ti-^5,4 of terms is expressed.

-•

62 !>N!>EEIN!TB PROKOI7NS. CHAP. III.

^ Mow,.$cRne body, such a one;^t J± mow jin»
a certain perscm ; .^ 5f£ mow k'hih, a certain* strauger,
or visitor;^ -®- ^ j^ Jaoumoo mow shey old mother
So and so £ J~ *$ $fc~ Jjt J^ tsze seih yu mow hoo,
should I be familiar with such an one., J^c Hwo, is of-
ton u&ed in; the same manner: as ^ fcj hwc> yu£ a eer~
tain person lias said; fjf JL hwO jin, some body. -^
Yew, also occurs in the same sense: as $j J\^ yew jinr
some body, or sotrre man; fe ^ A ^. ^fc ^rpeib
yew Jin paou t'ha che, certainly some one has told him-
^ ^r -^ y.ew w«h keen, or % jfe yew wuh, some-
tning; ^ ^ yew tsze, sometimes. So also ^ ^ §
yew ke tsaDU, ^ ^. J§, yew ke peen, j^ >^ ftj she
yew teihr $ ^ $fc hw6 yew she, ^ ^ ^ heu ke fan,
^ ^ 9? ^f y^w to shaou she, all mean sometimes.

r nf#tv< is expressed by^ -jgj ke ko, a fewf
soo fin, several persons,* ^J >P ^A 7^w to
jin, more or Jess ; ^. A ke jin, A few people ; ^
U §oojiihva few days; ^ ^ g pah soo jih, net many
days; orjfi JJ piih jih, within a short time.

Several; i& thus expressed; % ^fc Yew soo> ^ere are
several; || jg ke ko, several ;-jj- ^ B fs^B ke jih,
'j^veral d^ysago;^ ^ J| shangkechoo, wounded in
&e%^eral places; ^ ^ ^ ^ yewT ke kwraewiih, he has
several curiosities; ^ ^ ^ «*« ke fan, several times.

For none or nothing, me negative i<; employed: as
J& A woo jin, no man, none; ^ 3l ^ ^- S? choo
e puh yih eh'huh, none of the Barbarians came for-
ward ; — '$$ ^ J^ ^ ^ yih ko yay rniih yew k heu,
not one went away ; or •— ^rg J|L ^f ^ yih ko wei yew
klieu, not<Hje of them went; ^ jfc Jfc, haou woodbib,
nothing last;J| j: ^ ^ff J: shin shang muh tih
cfewan, he had nothing on hit: body ;J£f J| ^ ^ too
woo k'ho ieih, nothing to give; cjr ^- shay woo, jgg ^|
«seu^ woo,|lr J^ keu woo, all mean nothing.

33. The Chinese have various mcwies of expressing
our word same. The most {request is fil tunt?: as S]
%a tur=g niing, the same name; S ^ tung aeei); -of the
same age,;$) — Utjuug jih yatng, iir ^ — J?.
yifc J>W»B, in the-s:in;

CHAP. III. INDEtJNi'FE PRONOUNS. 63

leang sin tungliaou won, both their mkidU have similar
prejudices and predilections; — )is) yih tung, aH toge-
ther;^ J^ s£ang lung, the same;i ]pj jth -H ta
tung seaou c, Very much the same, and differing1 but
little; p| $* ~- ^ tung sinyHi e, with one heart and
mind; J§3 ^ %f A, tung taou teih j in, men of the same
pursuits; jf, ^ ptih tung, not the same, different; -^
(5J kung tung, ?*11 together;^ ^} ho tung, together
with, the same with ; {§J J3^ ^ ^ tung paou kung
300, born of the same womb, and sucking at the same
breast; uterine brothers:^} $£ $ tniig-ehin seih, of
the same couch and mat, bed fellows : Jl} $j£- tung
leaou, afellov/ officer; J^J ^ tung tsung, of the same
window, fellow students;^. ^ |^ ^ woo puh tung
chay, throughout the same; ^ fjjj keaetung, or ^ |^
— * ^ keae tang yih jen,all the same.

There are other words expressing same^ of which we
enumerate the most common: as < — yih, one>; — ^ yih
yang, or — jjji yih pwan, after one manner; & ~-
kwei yih, it comes to the same thing; Jf *— hwa^ yih,
to draw one liue;^i — joo yih, as one; — jfj yih
meen, at the same time;^ ffi keae jen, all the same;
^> Puk keae jen, universally the same; J^ ^
ta 1&S seang kin, generally, nearahouts ; ^ $
woo e e yay, no difference; || H woo e, ditto.
yih ch6, one rut, or trace ; £p S — ^ joo
ch'huh yih ch^, as if driving inone rut; ^ ^J >$t —
^ ^ t'ha f hung joo yih yang kaou, he is of the same
height with you.

34. ForoMeror another the Chinese use^fha,
4W -pefe?j5 Kng, aiid^- e. rIMs -Jjfc, H t'haj'h, another
day;>fS A w'hajin, anofher ra^n;^ X P^ ji», some
one else; ^J i -fe ^ P&£ sang fha e, to form some
other plan ; $ j$L ^ ^ pee woo t'ha sze, no other
<J)ject;^j ^ # ~fc pee sin fang fS, devise s^me other
means; ^ — *- jg t'ha yih ko, another.

So alsoj? ling: as ^ B Hng jih, etnofter day; %
Jfe ling im, a separate dwelling; ^ ^ — fS she ling1
yih ko, there is besides another; ^ ^ ^-fi
yia-tsocn, he has still got some other money; jlfc

64 COLLECTIVE PHOJSOUN-'. CHAP, III,

•ff1 |* tsze she Hrj keen bze. ibis is another business.
The following expressions alseoceur-K- H e jib. ano-

ther day ; "F H ^a .1'k' ^ie ncx* -*ay; JJff ff- niii-ig
neen, next year, or another year; X -% ^ ?£ yew yew
faBg fa, thcie are still other means; ^ A & ^ Jffir
E 7^ .jfe- k£ei1 jin cne shih joo fee che shtbu look upon
another*? loss as one's own

COLLECTIVE PRONOUNS.

35, This is a very numerous class, of which we -may
enumerate the following: jt &n, ail; -fS ./t tan fan,
whosoever;^ ^ choo fan, all, % ^ ^ A fan kin
cbe jin, all the in en of the present age; fl ^ &L ^
fan yew heue k'he, all \slio have Wood and breath, all
mortals ;Jc /O ta fan, generally ;^ ;L f^ fan. for the
most part; }t ^ fan yaou, the most important of the
whole; jt, A, fan jin, every hody; jt 16 fantae, every
mortal; jt J5f ^ fan so yew, all creatures: and simi-
lar expressions.

•^ Chung, and^%tsung, express the same idea: as
Ufa, ^ rhung sang, every living heing-^^chung lun,
the opinion of all, orpuhlic opinion ;$ Jf+'jfc.'fii kwa puh
teih chimg, the few cannot resist the many;-$i &
chungto, a great many ;^. JJ chung yue, all said; —
^ yih tsung", all, thewhoie;^^| tsuog seu, above all
necessary:^ ^ chung che, all of you;^ fifjj jgffij
tse tse.yew chung han tiring, all of you listen.

ttf Choo. and ,^ shoo ai^ al^o employed: as>^| ^
shooluy, all kinds ^ ^ shoo to, many;^ ^ ohoi.
min, all the people, the ^conimoR peqne:^ jjfa shoo kr.
nearly, nearabouts;JSr ^ shu0i!co, almost:"^- ^ choo
k ung. all you gentlemen ! pj| l|F choo sze. all affairs;
^jj ^ choo to. a great many;J| -^ shoo chung, the
multitude;^ ^ choo tsze, all the philosophers, the
whole school ;ffj ^ choo shwo, general opinion; |j|
^ choo kea. the \\hole tribe of philosophers; ^ ^
choo joo, the whole (acuity of scholars.
^ Keae, and^L kae. occur. ££(J are occ£i£io3:5!ly sy^o*

1

CHA?. nr. roLLE€Ttv^ PRONOJUNS. 65.

nyfhous: asjt ^ nyu keae* the women ail;$L *8T
chungkeae, all;# X JL teae pun keih, all made
quate;jf $ — |f nrh gno yh t'he, you and I arc
one; ^. $c ^ f&t'hae tekeae jen, nearly all the same,;
^ ^ ^ i wan wuh keae siing, all things are gene
rated;^ ^7 ^ |t l»ou yew keae tsae> both old and
young arc present; — ^iVth kae' ail togf^er- •$£- '^|L
>H vfe tsesng kae keu chtih, dri^e them ail out toge-
ther; A Mk ta kae, in general, or on an average.

^? Too. occurs in this seruse; asA^^ Jin t<v-
shwo, people all say; $ $$ fa $ gno too woo tsov,
we i*re innocont; ^;^ ta too, in general.

'jfe Kt^Ai, bears the same sense: asl^ ^ keu ehe, t?3
right; £ £f- ^ -£~ foo moo Ireu tseuen, both father
and mother are' well; $r ^ iR $- so w$i keu shen,
all that he did was well; $. ^ ^ >^ keu tsun hoo
Sin, he fcep& it all in hi« heart; ^ ^ keu k#5 each,
every one; ^i9f^> ^ ^ ^t yew so sze keu puh
show, t»f all thai he gave he received nothing So also
^»eu;as^4fc seukeaou, to teach all ;^ ^ seumei,
to level all. In the sense of ail, ^r tseen, is used; as ^
^g tseen seueo, they all chose; j; ^p Jt ^ ^| puh
yueii tseen chay t'hing, he did not wish thai all should
hear; j^ 0 tseen yufe,, all said. We meet with ,^ haa?
likewise as a eollective; thus A $0 $ ^ yi» wuh
ban heacg, rational arid irrational tribes all enjoyed it;
$C ^ ^ ban tsetsftti. all were assembled;^; ^ bar
c, all suitable: "^ ^ 4| ^ shang tan ksueti ym? all
the merrhantR have contributed money.

Mark also the following phrases: ^ ^ tse lae, they
come all together ; — ij^ ^ ^ yih tse keu i&, all is-
sued forth tog'ethe? ; ^ '^ *£ ^ tse eh'huh tseg yihg-,
they all went wt to oneet him ; ^ ^ tse shing, all
vhh one roice;^ ^ -wei tee, all together ;|f ^ h6
iea, your whole family ; ^ ^ A bo jih jin, ail the
people of the city. We may mention ^ kuog, in the
saoie conoetitioa ; as.^ ^ kungcke, all of them knew,
or gener* Hy known ^ ^ kuu^ ke, the whole number;
^ "^ i S Jk kuug e kwo ching, all unitedly
ed aboui the gOFemment of the cou»try ;/

TO NUMERALS. CHAP, IV.

jin fehinituag* fun, men and spirits were ail exasperated,
||. 4^ toiuK: kung, or-£ $|_ kung tsung, aH toge her,
- fte whole , >- -j£ ta kung. ditto, t^ ^' ho kung, all
together; ^ 4^ kung kung. publicly together: £ $g
W $LkTOg sear«g foo tsoo. they ait helped each other.
A ^£.Ta kea, iiv oonversation, signifies all, every one,
all of you: as;^ fa fa g $ jj£ takea ineen "meen
^gajag she, they all looked at each other. As a collective
j^ seih, IB frequently used; asjfe ^ seih ken5 all; |g
^ seih twan, the whole were eut off; — ^} 1J£ & yjh
ts4^ tsin seih, the whole number, all together: ^ % seih
leih, with one's wfeele strength . ^ y tain teae, all;
|5 /£* tsb sin, with she whole mind- 4- ^t tseuen
fche whole number, all; — ^ yin ts«\ oy-^-^ —
yih ping,— }^ yih t'huag, — i^ yili i»c£, ^i»- —
yih t*he, severally signifies the whole, all together. We
only remark in addition, that ^ to, many, is often used
m a collective pronoun, and that words like $ ketin, a
heed; '4^ yuen, clouds ; ^ fung, bees; are frequently
used to denote multitudes, though it would not be ex-
actly proper to consider them in the light of collectives.
We may easily perceive after the perusal of this
Chapter, that the pronouns of this gigantic language
as varied as those of the richest language.

CHAPTER IV\

• .

OTMERALS,

I. THERE are three v?ays of writing the numerals,
The first is called the& ^ fc§ ^ S ^ yuen pua
tf?ihBCK) miih tsze, or the original mode of writing them,
antfris common in books or ac«;ounts, The second is cat

UM capital mode of writ?ng> and consists in a selection of
^^meters shnikr in sound, but of various meanings.
7 hey are ased ia b«rds and imporiant document^ te

CHAP, IV. NUMERALS. 63

prevent their being easily erased or chants**!* or for the
sake of ornament, and the display of learning. Tfce
third and last called fa ^ fo "lit ^ t*a ^a *e*&
sootsze, or^ **f $$ Ijfc g .^ soo chow masoonaufe
tsze, are abbreviated forms used to facilitate writing, and
expedite the drawing out of accounts; they derive iheir
names from Loo-Choo, the place where they were per-
haps invented.

2, The iphole system of numeration is decimals
which the Chinese carry through all their calculations,
to the highest and lowest numbers. They went ongin-
al]y not further than a myriad, #ad up to this day go on
numbering in this manner. Thus the? say, f- J£ sbih
wan, ten myriads, for 100,000; E ~f" j^ san 8hih wago,
thirty myriads, for 300,000; — gf ^ yih pih wan, a
hundred myriads, for 1,000,000; — ^F Hf yih ts&m
wan, a thousand myriads, for 10,000,000. The follow*
ing is of later invention: such asfj|:yih, 100,000;
^bchaou, 1,000,000 - JC king, 10.000,000;^ kae,
100,000,000. The word^ te,J^ jang,>^| kow>|g
ke'en,3£ ching, and^ tsae,are also used by the BueL
hfiist and Tao^-priests to enumerate their endless kulpas.

3. Some numerals are used in a peculiar manner, of
which we shall exhibit the principal idioms.

— Yih, is used in numerous compounds, some of
which have been alluded to, in a formelr part of this
work, and need not be repeated here: the following,

however, may be noticed: — yih yih, one by one;

— /fc yih sin, with one heart, unanimous; || — J£
woo yih pub, without exception; ^ — pub yih, or
5j£ — feiyih, not merely one kind; — ]|p yih king, as
soon as; — |g yih meen, at the same time, whilst, one
while, occasionally repeated: as — 5f A P3 — jg
1^" ^ 3fc tft $Ji y& m^en ch'huh jnun, yih meen tuy
cliang pan shwo taou, whilst he was going out of th*
gate, he said at the same time to his servant, &cV — jfej
yih tsft, partly: as - |ij ft % — % ft if yih
tsih e ke, yih tsih e keu, partly with joy, and partly
with fear; ^ — wan yih, one in ten thousand, scarce*
IjT, if perhaps; — 0 ;|c yih k'how shwuy, one draught

68 NUMERALS. CHAP, IV,

of water; — ||- yih she, at one time; — Jt )?tfyiia
tee£ she, in a moments time; — jfc yih tsze, once; ~—
^ yih sang, the -whole life; — %j}s yrh t'hung , as soon
#s he heard: and so with various other verbs: as — jjfe
yih shwuy, as soon as he slept; ^ — ^ yih wang, as
soon>as he went away. They use also — ^ yih wei,
orj|~ — chuen yih, ad<lieted to^ devoted to. So also
-— ^ y8* se&9 a littfe; — H yife baeu, in a sligfit do
gree-;-— ^ pK teen, one dot^ j^ — ^-.-jfc ^.
^ bea ho yit geayyay we yew, he had n$f a single ar-
ticle of furniture. This numeral is also oft^n used be-
tween a reduplication of the verb: as^ *^ ^ k'han
yihk'haiij to take a look at;$£ — ^ seay yih seay,
just Avrite a little. When the numeral itself is repeat-
ed, it conveys to the verb something af the participial
meanings a« — ^ — '$1 yih lae yih wang, going and
coming;'—* || — j&jih tub yih seay, reading aud
writing,; but it is also used in this manner with other
parts of speech: a* — i r- 1^ yih shangyih hea, up
and doivn; — >^ — ^ij yih teen yih taou, topsyturvy.

4. The second cardinal number ^ urh,is used . for
both : also in the following connections ^f* Z~ puh urh,
the same; ^--jfe urfa sim, double minded: ^ ^urh
ts'hm, the two relatives, parents, ^ Leatig, is syno-
nyrnous with the above; as ^ H leang e, cr j^ "" ^
J^ngta, the two regular oir great ones, i. e. heaves and
^artfi; ^. ^ leang teaou,>the. plaintifi' and defendant;
% ^ leaiig mei, the two handsome things, i. e. genius
m lams, and beauty in woman; 5- ^ san sze, to ilunk.

5. Ihey go on to enumerah: j^ ^£. tsaesan, means
<%a?e and again, frequently, thrice :Z |SL san tsuh^
the three relations, viz. father, mother, and wife; 2. $i

g, the three ties in life, vis. prince and minis-
r ftiriaer^md son, husband and wife; jL ^ san kwang,
three lights, viz. «un, mooa, and stars; 2- ^ sau
, the three fowers^ viz. heaven, earth, and mate; S
^ san pan| the three classes of attendants in a public
<eiurt; £ ^ san paou, the three previous Budd^;
E. [ san see, the three officers, viz. tlie treasvrei;
^ and superfntendant of Ihe salt ciepartrj;e^i; £

CHAT. iv KtjiJSTiAi.8. 615

jfc IP* s*n keih te, *ke three &%3>est Jiiefaiy ranks.

6. They have afe©^. % sae fang, the four Bar-
ters;® 1^ sze hea, in every part; Kg ^ sze shoo> in
every place; 83 jg sse meen, an every side. So also
)$ ^ sze e,all the BarbarisKK|]g ^ sae paoo, the
four precious things* viz. pencil, pamper, ink, and ink-
stone; ygt vfe sze hae-the four seas, by Hrhkt China is
supposed to be surrounded, often used for the whole
Empire ;.3J j|j sze heang. the four points of the eo^-
pfass; B3 ^L sze ke, and W l^p sze she, the four seasons;
$9 ^ sze t'he, or 83 ^ sze she, the fct& members, or
extremities; and |5f ^ sze tuh, the four rivers, (in the
north of China.)

7. Tbey proceed with theii groujniigs ioJLwoo.
five; as Jt ^ wookuh, five kinds of grain, or grain in
general ;;£ ^ TITOO Itin, the five relations in Ufe^ viz,
priDce and suojeci, , husband and wife, pRronts a^dch?-
dren, elder and younger brothers, with frie^ulsandeom-
pmiions;j£ ^c ^°° Seaou, the five preeejl-ts, respect-
mg, each ef these ;JL ^--woohing, the five elements,
viz. water, fire, wood, metal, and earth, of which all in-
visible thfangs are^oom^osed, and to whteh correspond
the JL M ^roo sung, five planets, vk. Mercury,
Venus, Mars, Jepiter, and Saturn; JL ^ woo tsang,
the five viscera; 3E. ^ woo sih, the five colours; £ *#~
woo wei, the five tastes; £ ^& woo yo, the five highest
mountains in China, towards which the worship of the
ancients was directed ; jE ^ woofeeo, the five ranks
of nobility; and i ^ woo- fang, the four points of the
compass and fee centre, or zenith.

8. They go on to enumerate ft &~ Kih ko, the four
quarters of the world with the zenith and nadir ;^r ^
ihh poo, the six supre.ne tribunals at Peking;-/; jjL
luh fang, the six departments of administration in the
provinces, in imitation of the foregoing ;;/\ ^ luh
keih, the six calamities or inflictions, 1 hus they have
also -£ g^ tseih ching, the seven celestial regulator?,
viz. the sun, moon, and five planets; A. ^" pa fang, the
eight p&iueipit] r . ••' juhordinate.poiutsof the compass;

/V a Ta, ih-i eiwbi diSeit;nt la\v*s of the criming

70 NtmSRASX. CHAP. IV,

code; A. :ff f>a hicg, the eight different ways by which
the tributary grain arrives at Peking

9, They advance in their cfa*aiieatiaa of numerals*
to jt> kew: as,fc R) kew num. the nine gates of the
capital ;;#, Jc &2W- keaon, the nine apertures of the
lieart;^ jJL kew pin? the nine gradations of official
Tank ; JL. -tik kew chow, the nine provinces ; JL ^J kew
bm^, the nine junishine;af3;& &_ kew tseuen, the
nine fountains^, underneath which lies hades ; *f ^
shih tseuen, entirely perfect; *f -^ sh*h fun, very much :
"g7 *|* pih kwaa, all the Mandarins; f -fe£ pih sing, the
hundred surwaines, the people; g" 4^ P^n hwuy? tiie ge*
neral assemblage of nerves^ the braii); ~J? ,^r, pih miihj
the whole class of trees; ^ ^ pih ke, a Unudred plans,
a great many schemes; ~g~ '$£ ~g *}* pih fk pih chung,
prove successful in every enterprise; *Jf ^ -^ pih
tsesn wan, an immense number; ^ ^L tseen tsew, a
hundred autumns, the birth-day of a person of rank ;

^P IT ^ 1^ ts^en P^ *^a to^ft a Sreat wany ser-
wats; ^f ^ ts^en suy, a title of a king, Your Majesty !
^ ^|| tseen chow, the same; ^f & J| ^ tseen saa
wan shwuy, all woods and waters; ^f ^ ^& ^r tseen
neen wan tsae, an amazing long time; ^ g wan kwo,
all nations; ^ ^ wan suy, $Jj ^ ^ wan suy yay, and
^ $£ ^ wan wan suy, all mean His Imperial Ma-
Jesty » H ^ wan show, the Imperial birth-day; ^ ^r
wan fang, all pahs of the work!;$| ^| ^ ^wau
nan tsung- min^, at all risks obey you; j^ ^ wan she,
forallagc^^ Wan, followed by a negative increases
its power: as$| ^ ^ ^ wan puh kantso, I Y^-'Id
not on any account dare to do so; ^ ^ yih chacu, or
4fe ^, chaou Trin, the millions of the people; j^ yfa
king chaou, the capital

10. Fractions, ^ ^ ling &oo, are expressed in
the foil owing manner: as jEL ^ ^ — ^ sanfunyew
yih fun, or H ^ it *"* san fun che yih, one4hird;
^7 ^ ^ ® luh fun che sze, two-thirds; ^L -^ >£
J£ kew fun che woo, five-ninths; ^ pwan, one-half;

^ vin yih yuen pwan, one dollar and a half:
yih men pwan, or — j £ yih ueeu

CHAP* XV. NUMERALS. 71

yew pwan> *one year and a half; £f 41; ^ HJ" neen ke
pwaii pih, about half ce tury old; ^ jsK P^an heang.
lialf a minute; ^ ^ pwaa yay, midnight; ip -j- pwan
tsfce, a son in law ; ^ % ta "pwan, the majority ; ^£ ^
^ j|^ pwan bin ywan e, half belieti&g half db-ucting.
**p Chung, sand ^ yang, &*£ both used in the sei-s?;- of
half: a quarter is 48? ^ j£ — sze fiin the yth; a qiu^
ter of an Lour is j?^ ^ — %$ she shin yih k'hih,

11. Once, twice, thrice, &c. are expressed in Chi-
nese I/y joining the jiuiBerais to^ tsge, lU hwuy? ^
fan, and if, tiaou: as —

one: He *;Jt- syotb^e, .several i5*»irB; >L H *'S^ jih,

second day ;]3| |gj S2ie.hwiiy, four Cimea; S JO U5 ..<fc

sac hwuy sze tsxe, repeatedly , >> ||- I&h fe» » six times ;

^ ^kefan, several times;— xj| yili tsao«i, once;

-}* v|f sMh tsaou, teaiiines; ^ ^§ fea tsaoiu aeveral

times] fp ^jt tseS tsze^ j£ die ts2e,§ ife.l'o.y tsze,

f & iuy tsae,^ ^feen tsze, ^ ^ to

^Lhaou ke tsze, ^ .jg: wang

^- ./f se£ seS, |f H. tsae

t«?ae else san,jji ^ teih texe, |f ^

chuBg-dbg che^ all signify i»any times,

12. Double is ex|^e^sed by.JI chuag, wd
shwang:asE ^ chui^fuli, a douUe t?ress; i ^
cliiing fah, again; j| ^j| chung k'hih, to reprint; 2.
Z "i^ Si[ ^ san C^ITP«S ^h^v.^b luh, three doubted
urite.sk; — H $Jt yih tihwaag w^5 a pair ef stockings;
% ^ shwiicg ts'hit), parents :^ |f shwang shwang,
io pairs, ^ ^ woo shwnng, iaeomparable, geerles^; ^
>^ sliWMig tseuen, boA perfect Jp Tan,^ tuh, %$
till, asd <Jt chuh, all in5?an sin^e; as 9 $ tan SBS*
a single jacket; j£ JJf tiaa tau, only, s^ly ; ^ ^ tih
ehow, a 4ogle boat; 3$ — >\ tuh yi jin, ««ke siagJe
tnau;^ ^ t^h show, with a single haml; J| j| chili
^hin, one peisoa alone. Fold is expressed %jr^ pei,
and ^ kea; as Z fa san pei, ;^ 21 f§? to sail pei, or
>f 1^ 51 iS &» shaag sao pei, threefold; i ^L M
san ctjow shin, a three fold cord; jfr •— f» Iksa yih pei,

72 NtmBKALS. CHAP, IT.

double; ^ ^ -f" if? shing che shih pei* ten times
more; Jtu >fe" j§k£a]uh pei, fix fold.

13. In order to express the ordinal, 1foe Chmese
prefix Jjl te, before the cardinals: as^ & te sze,, be
fourth;^' ^ te kew, the ninth. It Might, however,
to be observed, that they are seldom used, and that the
Chinese generally express the carJinals thus: ^ -Jt
^ /L ^ taou kwang shih kew aeen, in the 19th
year of Taou-kwang: .2* % san yufc, the third mouth;
3& $3 keueu sxe, the fourth bo^k.

14 Odd is expressed by^" Hug: as ^ ^f ^ i^
-f- urh tseen Kng luh shih, 2,OSO;^ ^ ^ ^ «»e
was Jing sze, 40,004. More is expressed by^ yn: as
s* IT ^ ^ ^ foh pih ye« yu ts^en^ more than
600<ra€h,-f g ^; ,|t shih yuen yu shieig, ten dollars
are H) ore than enou i^h ; ^ g Jt Jh sh^iyuene
t^f) dollars andmore; ^ t. Hh S puhehangshib
not more than ten dollars ; -^ g jji }; a].(h,yuen
less than ten dollars, T^ T; V 1 P^1 ^ s^'^
not below tea dollars : ^ «L 3L jjj fl f»tih kwo leatig
san jlh, more th?ui two or three days; ^ i" ^ ^ ^
urh Bhih yew yu neen, twenty and odd years; ^ -f~
t soo sfeih rveen lac, for several tei}s of years ; /g
-f- ^F ieih fcae shih ueeu, during ten years ; -f ^
ishih neea e wang, fo? these ten years past; ^
— ^ ^ £ 0*. neen yih pih ling woo say >, o»e huii-
dred and five years of age;^ -^ 4- 5. j^ show liih
shtfe san suy, at 63 years of age ; -f ^" ^ ^^^ yew
san, thirteen^ ^ ^ ^L luh yew urh, sixty two. These
ar« the peeri&i&r modes in which the Chinese use the
numerals and they ought consequently to be imprinted
upon the memory.

15, Addition is called by the Chinese X4
soo4 substraetioa ^ $t t^eo soo; multipiicatioa |l
shliig shoo; the raultipifefitioa tabled f^ &~ i$L
kew fao soo; and division is called ^ ^t ftin soo. The
whole process of arithmetic is performed by the ( bi«
with great dexterity m the afiacus, a« instrument
whid* every Siuologue trill be eoaversant,
We have kkeady remaxked thai the decimal

CHAP. IV. NUMERALS. 73

system was carried by the Chinese to a very great ex-
tent. Most of their money accounts, their measures,
and their whok calculations being founded upon» it

In computing money they use the folio wijjg terms.
Ten 'j§* hwuh, make one 4^ sze, ten^ sze« one^ h,
ten^- haou. one /It le, (or cash) ten/!! in »vne *?-
(or candareen) ten^ fun, one, ||[.t6een, (or mace) Leu
^ tseen, one $| leang, (atael. or ounce.) For heavier
articles they add 16 S§ leaiig, make one % kin, (or cat-
ty, 1J lb, avoirdupoise) 100 j>f kin, make one ^ ten,
or ^L tan, (pecul, 133^ Ib.)

17. ' Tlieir long measure is the following: 10 & fun.
make one 3~ tsun, (or pint:) 10 ^ tsun, one K. chih,
(or oovid) 10 }L chih, one ^t chang, (about four yards;
in Canton a yard is called^ ma;) 10 ^: chang make one
$\ yin, In- measuring distances they say, live Jt chih.
make one^ poo, (or pace about 5^ feet,) 360 ^ poo,
make one $. le, (Chinese mile, about 659|( yards,) 250
HL lev make" one^ too. (mathematical degree, which
is also »iivided scientifically into 60^ fun, or minutes;
and each of these 1j~ fun, into sixty ^ chaou, or s* coeds.)
In land measure ilve ^ chih, (as above) make one ^
poo, or § kuag, 240 Jj, kung? make one SX. mow, and
lOOpijLmow, one^ king,

18. In dry measure, their mode oi reckoning is the
following:;?; ^t luh suh, make one i kweiv ten i
kwei, one ty chaou, ten^? chaou, one i|c tso, ten jjfc
one ^ cb^, ten ^ cho, one ^ho, ten ^ ho, one
ci\i«g, or pint, (about 31| cubic pints) ten ^ shing,

3|- t<*w, or peck, (about 316 cubic puts) five Jy tow,
on? S4 hwiih, (or 15bO cubic pints) and twoi=fhwuh5
make one >6 shih,(or 3160 cubic pints.) This is the
scientific arrangement, not exactly followed in com-
mon life, where two ft yo, make one ^feo, the remain-
der it as above.

19. In working time the Chinese make use of fwo
sets of horary characters: the first is *f ^ shth kaa,
the ten stems, or JJc ^ t'heen kan, the ceie,s*tial stems,

hese are f kea, t^ yih, ^| piu^, X tine. ri£ woo, ft

wei. The oilier *t-

74 NUMERALS. CHAP. IV.

ries consists of he "f ~ j£. shih urh che, the twelve
branches; ais<> called :$fc Xte cne» the terrestrial bran-
ches; which are ^ iszfi, JL chow, <j? yin. JjS maoiuj^
shin,£; sze, ^ Tfoo^^wei, 1^ shra^jgj yew, J^'sefih.
and J( hae.

V2(X For hours the twelve branches are used finely.
The civil day of 24 hours is divided into twelve periods
comprising two of our hour:-;, each £ |[ si

They commence fr^n; 11 o'clock th*.

first character iijriu,^ the time between 11 arv
o'clock. By prefixing J£ chmg e'Tui $ If aou, to these
dhnracters the twelve periods are divi- o 24 ho>*rs,

Thus JL *f chingw«o, exact ntK>u., or 1
keaottwoo, 11; ^.. M ..T ^ cbiv.-

keacu hae, 9; R M. &c. Tlie j^^ she s^
are divided into eight^ k'h'ih, quarters; an-
these into ^ pwan, or halves;* as jt J8$ *— ^| chine
seA yih k'hin, a quarter past eight; P. M. $ *f?
^ keaou yin urh k'hihpr;*,::, 37{ r*iinute nasi
A. M, I he night from seven in the evening, 10 five IP.
the morning, is divided into live J* k^sisg. or watches.
each comprising two hours. The sanie twelve branche^
sen'e also to designate the points of the compass: thu>
^h tsze, means north; ^ woo, south: ^jj maou, east;
and W yew, west; the other eight denote the inter-
mediate points. Most of their months consist of 30
days; the first month is called J£ JJ ching yut; the
first clay of each month is called ^ 0 Is'hoo jih: while
tfeis% ts'hoOj is prefixed to all the days up to the tentl*.
day: as ^f - B is'hoo urh jih, the second day: ^ff
"L S ts*hoc san jih, or sithply ^J 2. ts'hoo san, ibe
third day* &c. Tke month is occasionally divided into
three decades, called Jt || shang seun; vj* 3? chung
seim> and *T ^ hea seun; the first, second, and third
decades ; ^j |*J seun ituy, within ten days ; §|
wae, more than ten da y»; Z ^ san seiui, one

seun, the same: Jf g* -t ^ Been e
already 70 years of age. An intercalary
of wBirh there are seven in nineteen years, is
5 M Jlm.Vu^, the rule for fixing the same i*.

. iv. *. 75

that when during a lunar month, the sun does not enter
any particular sign of dis zodiac, that mouth is in-
tercalary.

The Chinese year is luni-solav, consisting of 12 lima?
months, to which an intercalary month is added as a-
bove, to make the lunar correspond with the solar year.
it commences on the new moon nearest to the fifteenth
degree of Aquarius, and is corrected according to the so-
lar year, by the use of twenty four terms or half moriim,
called |p ^r t-se'£ ling ; eacb of which expresses the pe-
riod of the sims passage through the half of a zodiacal
ign, .See the amused table. )

CHINESE TEEMS.

Jan. 6. /h '%%- Seaou-han. Sun 15* in Capricorn.
Jan. 21. *. *Ta-han, >^

fr'eb. 5. A * Leib-chun, j; Site in

* w

Feb. 19, 33 3JC Yu-shwuy, )0 . «..

Mar. 5. ^^King-chih, $ Sunm Pisces.

Mar. 20. ^ ^ Chun-fun, > c .

Apr. 5. Jt 58 Tsiug-ming, 5 &Un "

Apr. 20. 'Sc S Kuh-yu, > ,, . _

May . 5. A 3E Leih-hea, { Sun m Taurtts-

May 21. j}» ^t Seaou-mwan, > ,, . 0

June 6. -S Jl Mang-chung, {&«*»"» Genum.

June 21. i j£ Hea-che, ) c . _

July 7. ;J^ ^f Seaou-shoo. J *un m ^nc™-
July 23. A 4Ta-shoo,

Aug. 7. Jt Jt Leih-tsew, J Sun m

A^g. 23,^ ^ Choo-shoo, > , vr

.rep. 8. fi^Pih-loo, ^un 111 Vwgo.

Sep. 23. $fc ^- Tsew-fiin. > _
Oct 8. ^ ^ Han-loo, Sua « Llbra-

Oct. 23. ® if^ Sbwang-keang

N ov, 7. 4 ^ Leih-tani:. <Suu ln

NOT. 22. ;h €: ." eaou-»euh. ?

\

Dec 7. A * Ta-seuh, 5 &un ln

Dec. 22. 4? $ Tung-cbe, Suu ei>ters

76

NUMERALS.

CRAP. 1Y.

The Chinese count their years either according to the
r».-i*?'j of an Krnperor; as for 1840 they say >3t 3fe ~- "t
if* taou kwang urh shih Been, or according to a cycle,
called ^ ? keS tsze, of *^fc T "?" hwa ke£ tsse, each
consisting of 60 years: these are marked by the above
horary character-, (See the annexed tahle. 1 840 is the
37th year Jf ^ k£ng tsze, of the 75th cycle, since the
days of Hwang-te. )

THE EWA-KEA-TSZE, OR CYCLE OF SIXTY

keatsie

2

f i

ym chow

ping ym

4

n

kea

12

yih hae

13

iiigmaou

tote
14

TJL

ting chow

I
hi« I woo yin

6 Jb

! ke

17

18

*£

»ii< SZ-.

19

21

kett shin

'23

yki

31

W

•» i

32

41

51

£ shin

42

we

ping uu

Tt

feac

25

WOO tSJC

26

mug shin

yib see

piag woo

A

kf chow

f^

sin «rc

9

;in whin

10

woe

20

we

kang yin

«

tinLr yew ting we

,§5. i 45,

>$£ ;?

r/** seufai i woosJSiiri

36, 46

ke hae | ke yew

37 47,

A jL. "^tb
/^X" j ^t/%

Miaou

29

I 38 [ 4^
^JL i ^^

sin ebow i «ui hat

39. 49

jin shis«

30

«-£.

kwei «?

jin yin j jin tsxt
40 50

kea yii

52

yih maou

ping shin

-54

re

sze

55

56,

&8

.57,

kang shin

58

fg

*iu yevr

59

jin scuh

60.

k^vci

CHAF. V.

21 . In enumerating, the Chinese do not generally
the ordinal* as our first, secondly, thirdly. &c. hv» 1 adopt
iht> following method las**- ^jt yih lac, first ~ $L arh
lae, secondly; (also occasionally $» — ^R ^ ^ /£- )
or — * 3% yib chay, in th« first instance; ~~ % urh
eh ay, in the second instance: or <— jjf.yih tsih, in th«
first place; -j2. |$ urh tsih. in the second place; or ~~

H yih yu&,ji Q urh yuc, the same-; -->r % — keyih,
the ftrst;j}( ^ ke urh, the second; &c. In many in-
stances they only use — yih, and will go through a
whole sones of subirrtr, prefecte^ >ath — yih.

Fii^t, second, and tte are expressed byjt shang,

41 chung, and T hert Fire^ and last by^^rche
chung, ^ $L pun mo, and Jf ,C t'ho'-v v ei. First
*od second by jE. ching; ai>d^tsung. First, upper-
mo6t is jt y^en: as ^ ^ yoen jih, the first day of the
year; ;cv if yuen neen, the first year *f ? reign. FOT
the first 'lay -:>fa TI/'-'V; month ^ so, is sometimes used
instead of^KJ ts'hoo, first. ^ The uppennost ivs also ex-
pressed hy^ kwfi as ^ $& isuy kwei, the chief of
sinners. Otherwise first (before others) is expressed by
It" ^ show seen. t>r ^ ^ -ts tiy seen. Last: as last
year is expressed by ^ ^ k'heu neta, ^ ^ kew
i>een. or .f: i^: krh ^bc last day of the year is

CHAPTES Y

THE VERB.

1, As the Chinese verb has not yet been exhibited
in all its bearings, we shall be the more particular upon
this suteect Thus it will be our object to show, how.
thoughTtevoid of moods and tenses, it is made to answer
all the purposes of our conjugations and infections;
while we must always bear in raind, that unless rhe
distinction become necessary, aone of the grammatical

78 AUXILIARIES. CHAP. V.

particles or auxiliaries are employed. It is an exiensive
subject in the disquisition of which, we in treat the rea-
der's patience, which will, as we hope, be not inappropri-
ately bestowed. We shall not burden the memory by
rule's, but mostly teach by examples, and endeavour to
shew by these, the various modes in which the verb,
tailed by the Chinese !pr ^ tung tsze, or Jg '^ hwo
tsze. a r-rO-viDg or living ehm~acteris used,

AUXILIARIES.

2. We begin with this class, as affording an intfCM
duction to the subsequent remarks. From the nature
of the language we may easily suppose that auxiliaries
are rather numerous. The principal ones with their va-
rious uses are enumerated below.

3. The first is % tih, to get, or obtain; it also sig-
nifies ability. Thus f£ ^ tso tih, it may be done,
practicable; $t ^ gae t*h, may he loved, amiable;
'ft Jf* 1$ te® Fuk ^' i**»ay not be done, impossible,
~$L % -flf shwo puh tih. it cannot be spoken, unspeak-

J i & ^ %!t PU& tih- shwo, idem. J| jfa ^ -j£ mu

lib shwo, cam'-- saj anything; $r ^ ^ *$t seay

. dh puh k'hwae, cannot write fast; -^ ^ ^ puh tih e.

*: 3%- ^f puh tih puh, cannot avoid; ^ -$J £ pun
vih ieaou, cannot close ; ^ ^he tih, can rejoice; ^
^••kixig tih, frightened; <| ^ nan tih, difficult to be
obtained; If <$ & ^. ^than tih woo yen, can be de-
sired without loathing; It -f| T ^ mei tih puh shing,
can be considered i>eautifid in the extreme; ^ ^ i^zc
tih, to have possession of one's self; ^g ^ seang tih, to
be mutually agreeable;^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ tsingpiih
tih tung pCih tih, could neither move nor be at rest.
As already shown above, ^ tih, often indicates the su-
perSative degree; as ^ -ff ^ panu'tili keih, _as cruel
**» powftihle £, >fC ||r pa puh tih. or ^
^«"<> -ib. «<mvey the meaningof the Qptatii

: be^>; ;^ ^ iieeti tih, or^j| ^
j>iv that it may ?>e avoided, or dhpettetf'i ^;^-: r?. 4^ -f&

CHAP. V, \lj\n, lAfUES. 73

meen pub til', *i %\ A* tpf sang puh lip, unavoidable,

4. We next rtfir to j|f cho, Wnieh is in some res-
pects related to the above, though less definable. lr
means to cause, to effect, and, in many in-statices, v/heii
affixed to verbs, cannot be explained by any corres-
ponding word in English: for instance .it M leih chi\
he' stood :5| 3f teih cho, did kick; £ If tso cho.
sat: ^ ^ na cho, took. To this we add th$ f~

inst i.; ni caning will he clearly seen: «i;

^f • k till we fed; J$t li~ keen cho. got

;!-. oft"%V • «","ho. lookF.fl to-war^ ; $£- ^ ..^"

shwuy • puh cho, could not sleep ;^ ^F\ j^f tsin puh
cho, could not find; W ^ "^f lew cho gno, retained
m.^;^ ^ ^ kan tih cho, succeeded in the pursuit;
H? 7J[ 1& ^^en cn^ t'ha, thought about him; ^ ^
inei cho, oi\ what account, for what purpose; ^ ^
cl>o keih; to be in haste; ^ ^- cho ling, to issue or-
ders; TJJ: ^ cho naou, got into a rage, |j| >^ cho 16, or
^ ^ yew cn°n answerable for* The general meari-
insr, in most of these instances is, to reach, effect, come to
obtain, cause.

5. We may also specify^ kea on, or ^ |;r
ra«se with;^she/^tfc^]^keih;^\ie3 'iiKij§t

are all used to form a neuter causative, the first two ex-
clusively in conversation: as^i ^ If -!£ ^ ^
keaou gno chow yay k'hin laou, make me work night and
day;^^l -i$ ^ jS5 hewkcaoit foo t'hung wrm,, do
not let the woman hear of it;^t ^ ^Ji ife" ^ ^
keaou gno jooho pan sze, how shall I be ahle to ma-
nage the business;^: 5jp fl@ ^t 8^ ^ ieaou 0* ko
urii shwuj cho, made the child sleep; v$ $% ff: 'ff
-^ H ^ keaou gno tso heu to go safe, caused me to do
a ^reatdeai of wickedness; *$ ^ ^ ^ -^ ^ keaou
- i.ih k liae k'how, he gave me no opportunity for
opep rw^th;^kj£^^ "I »4 ^ 'S - Ifc

^ %" joofaft : ven. keaou gno me-htso le hmiy.

by your m^cr: speech and frequent repetition you pre-
vent sue from understanding" you ;*4 ]i|j ,-^r j^ ,^ ^:
keaou shasig sae to ^Kth Uh. r^.^kc it insupportable t«
the merchants. ^. Keaou, oii accouutof tbesimila-

80 AUXILIARIES, CHAP. V.

ritv of* sound, is often used in the same manner.

ifc ffi She tih, it will do; fc A § -ft & ^t she
jin show nan woo soo, to cause numberless sufferings to
people;^ f^ ^ ^t woo she gno shih, do not cause
me to sailer loss; -?Jt A •3ff :j^ :fL she jin ke shoo lae,
cause people to send letters, -fife She, is also used for
perhaps: as also 15 ftl^he she, /II fjt k£a she, in th
same sense ;-f~ ^ &*g wan, to give notice; ^ A

•Ir ling jin await pe. to cause people to rejoice; -fy

^ SJ1 1$t £t w**n ^ng k^a tsze :?DO sze^ ^1° not ^et
your family starve;^ jg» ^ ^ pe tseue pe ynen, to
cauc>e the sources of evil to he cut off; j^t ^" gf- ^ ^
pc yew £o e iae, cause him to have something to rely on;

T4 -$f $- jfc ^" ^ rfe Pe ^^ P6 tsze >rcw PinS gkn-
cause that . ttiei'e may ^ be peace on both sides. This

word is also whiten ^ pe.

$$ Keih, like the tbyraor, denotes to give: as ^ j^|-
shan** kf:ih, to ^ive a re ward; f| ^ mae keih, to sell
to; 3^^ keihtexe, give a commuaication, or commu-
iiitate;|^^ 3^.^ keih ling hung pae, eause them
to receive a passpor! . In edicts, this word is used in
various ways. But in conrersation ic is often used in
the passive sense: as ^ ^ || ^ keih gno ma t'ha,
he was blamed by me; ^ %$ $& j^ gno keih t'ha nu,
I was blamed by hirw;|^-^^f <^ keih gno »bwo
, he was told by me, •

Che, nieaas also to cause: as £( gt c che, in or-
der to; JL )JSk che e? cause that; |£ ^ che t^ to com-
munieat^ information;^ ^ ke che, address to ? ^t ^
che che, to make known, or cause to know, ^ ;£f jj^
^ che yew ts?:e sze, until this atfair was brougi»t a-
bout; Jt ?& ^ie s*e» to cause death, ^ ^ J^J ^ JJ§.
^ k'hin laou r ehe tewan tseen, worlt diligently in or-
der to gain money ; ^ ^ fcew che, do not let: Jt '^s'
ehe ling, cause.

6. jjK^ Peih, "I* kae,JS« ji"gv^wo^M seil- 5! e5
^' tang, andj®. ie, all mean oughi, mugl; and should,
either singly or ia compounds. ?ji ijfr Wei peih. it is
not jaecessary, it is net certain; $fc ^ pai'h teo,

CHAP V AUXILIARIES, 81

))k |c peih yaou, all mean indispensably necessary,
fy? Peih, often denotes the future tense, conveying a si-
milar meaning to our shall: as $*' 3J£ peih lae, shall
come;^ *jj£ peih se'ay, will write ; ijfc $£ peih tseang,
certainly will;^ $£ peih je», o*^ *j& ^ peih joo
she, it must be thus; /£ & peih king, it will be so af-
ter all

Ying kae, ought ;^ ^ kae £aBgs should;
kae tsze, ought to die; j^ j^ ^ ^ ^ keu
tunge kae yay, conduct as it ought tobe
jfe ^* \ingtang, ought, what is proper: & ^ tsae
ying, certainly ought, i! isnjy duty; ^g j^ seang yung,
mutually required: JJL ^c ying shing, to take upon oneV
self an obligation, to promise; JL J| ^ #t we* P^g
yew tsze^ it ought nof to be thm
^ ^ Woo seu, $r jjt woo peih, ^ ji" woo e, mean
severally must, ought, necessary ? iftdfejpensable; as -f§r
)% %woo suh hing, you mMt walk fast; ^ ^ Jt
^ woo peih tsin leih, it is accessary that you should ex-
ert yourself; ^ jt ^f ^ woo e neang t'heeu, w«
ought to look up to heaven,

J?jf J^ Seu yaou, necessarily must; ^f ^ seu t'hae,
must wait;H> ^ji ^sung seu, above all must, you must
decidedly; zjljjji $jfr ^ keu^ seu ttsban show, must cut
off hid head; |TA 3j( ^& nan ta seu hw&n, young men
when grown up should be married ;^jf ^ ^ ^
seu woo tih chuy koo, must not on any account make
tences. ^ JSeu, is now and then used in the same
^ $ Woo e, and j£ Jt le e, ought, it is proper; #
3C *ean? et befitting;^ J & ;fr £ 3^ woo e
ch'hiib leih wan seun, you ought to exert yourself to
finish the business: jg. ^ peen e, suitable; £| j£ tih
e. proper; J ,^ e jen, feuitable;^ Jt »hih e, just
what ought to be.

5£ '^ Leta-g,^ ^ pun tang, mean what ought to
be done; ;Jfj ^ seang tang, what is fitting to be done;
IB M ta«g seay, must write; J? ^ ^ 3t ^ 1« tang
lae t^heen taou, it is reasonable that we should trust to
providepee;^.^ ^ g- pun 8<3 tang wei, what ou^ht
to be done.

CHAP. T\

M Le, just, reasonable, ought ;£§ $f ^ ^ le so
tang wei, what ought to be done;j!j| J£ fgj |j| lee
*vS?i tsuj',he ought in reason 10 he punished,

1 . $gf Yue»,|£ yo, 4? jaon,V^| she, and if k'hang,
a?l mean wislv, desire, want wtH: as^ £ji tsnng yuei\
H j|: yuen e, to iwdbpH; $£ A ^ ;ji yuen wan jin
heang f uB, w^ wish -all men to eajoy happineaa, j|f ^

5P ft M "1 X f # fT-^ '^3V yew seay
tih, yuen tuh ye^* ruh piih tin. wishing to write
write, wishing to read and cannot read;^
y«eu e k*fae diing, wv - -- you to go on
your journey.

^ yuetr T;;- sn4t 3t 4t'^ y*9 mean to de-

But could not; ^ ^ ^ ^ eyo irang elmen,
he wished to sail |£ ^ "^ N^ e yoho vim, what does
fee wish to do? J£ ^fc |f ^ A ^ ^f y»^n yo yo
Seftj^in seang ho, he wished toiwjj ^a good tern>« Mrith
his family,

p Yaou, and Jik & yo yaou? mean to want, wish,
&&* as $ ^ # yaou ch'iivA keae, he wanted to go out;
Jc |r ^tJ^ yoyacmV b cliing, he wanted to atr
tac 5t the city; ^ 4| tsuy JAOU, or ^ ^ kin yaou, verj
much wanted

3^ She, is used to express desire, wish, but is not
r^soy«*J so frequently as any of the above auxiliaries
£•» B§ ^ ^ ^- sii-* yu yo shih, io be addicted cc eat-
ing and drinking; **f ^ ^ ^ sli<3 yo woo keung h<?
ffe-iished unb-iimded desires or appetites; >fjt ^ ^
i le she^e. ]« was only desirous of gain.
K'hang, -/ill, to be willing as ^ ^ pub

uw:, he v^^s a^wvlliug f^> follow,-^
, to absent to, to agree to , ;j| ^ ^ ji»6

one was willing Lo do it.

The verbs ft pa,^ ta, & lae, £ k'hei^ t^ tliae,
|^ kanv|f h^»gi nnd $| p'ha, are used in various ways
as auxiliaries.

$B Pa, to take hold of, to grasp, often occurs as ai;
auxiliary, an*i is w many instances untranslatable: a$ Jf
ife fe f^ -S- A ?>a fhab taou fsngBuy, tafc B

<THAP. V. AUXILIARIES

drag him inside the room;^0,$f ^ -#$ pa seasg 1ft
clruen, get the box on board the vessel ; $£ J^ % H&-
?? $t fe J$ ^ H p» P^n tse che tsuy jin. heiing teih
fhow, throwthe guilt of his wife upon his ht ther;
H? 4fc J^9 pa wei woo yung*, deem it of' no- use; ^S
yih kcia shaleaots, killed the whr>!*j tV
3T Pa §no k'hmg leaou. treated rrie
pa sin tsoo bo, to feed the riie

of his heart towards him; $J ^ jjf ~* >^ pa sin mt
yih mo. just lay your hand upon y<rur hea-rt; |g ^ ^J
^ ^ ill ^ Pa S1*0 ^^R k'hau fill-in tseea^look u.p*»-
us withsaelicoale?iip^;4E jij* ^ ^ W pa seaou te
tang shen^ consider say brother as a ^irmmis man ; $L

pe, to view riches as a fteetiug i^>«ul: ..From' these va-
rious examples H v^ii appear, feat the word, either gh eb
a causative meaiimg, or niay be translated % view, ar
consiior, especially when followed, by <§* tm^jfe
or^ idae,

43- Ta, to beat, or strike, is used m a variety o
as ata auxiliary: thus |j ^ ta »eao7i, to sweep; $J *i$-
ta tea, to fight; ^j |^ ta teen, to arrange; £f ^ta ITS,
^ ta pan, to dress ;fj ^ ta shwuy^ to
tafhing. to enquire; J^''^fr 'jjtf iM
yu gno ta ko ehaou meen, turn the face to me;
M & ta ^ t'he lae, drag him out of the water;
^ puh takiii, not of great importance, no matter;
jg -£ H ta shir nio|5hkm, deem ofno^coiisequencQ;
4j ^ ta chang, to fight.

^ Lae^ coma is used in Vcirious wija as an auxilia-
ry, hut commonly following the verb: ES ^ ^ ^t tso
j^jjb las, could not do il; ^^ ^ jj* j&h tih lait, come
entar,:^ ^ lung lae, ayproadb •; £ g lae taou, arrive ;
-^L ^. w^ng lae, going 3Bdcomipg^mterc<Jtirs^ ^^
"teen lae, wanted to draw forth his sword ,
na shwuy lae. bring water here:j|| £ ^
siibo !ae, tsk^ « look at a bocik'^-^ ^ tf ^
Che k'Ke'y^ih lac tahc un the -— --i %-* -—

£4 AUXILIARIES. CHAP. V,

k'huh *»eattg H he lae, began to weep; |& shw&

k'he!ae\ *>£#**>* talking; (^ jjt k'he lae, generally
naea & t#-comm*oce;) & ^ ch'hiih lae, go out; ^ $}
$£ na ch'huh iae, take it but;^ $£ $ jfc mug tlia
chlmh lae, bring him out. It is often used as an ad-
verb, er adjective; as^ $[, yuen lae, originally, now,
placed at the begma ing of sentences, that explain the
foregoing: as ^ •$£ 5C tsung iae puh, or^ ^L -&
tsung lae woo, never ^ ^l ts&n Isc, the above fre-
quently in edicts : ^ ^ how Ise, afterwards; $t ^
JjJ ^ tsung kin e lae, henceforward;^ j3| lae
t'how, origin; j^ j|| lae leih, hi^torj, state, circumstan-
ces, particulars, ,$JL ^ J|| woo lae leih, no foundation,
no truth, unaccountable; Jt 4} Icie yew. c^use. yarfeii-
|^r*; i ^t B woo lae j3i, for tjiese five days; ^ |^

^ ^fc Ji yew sze ^° *ae y11^' moj^. *han four months
ago; j^^ lae jKh, next day; ^ ^ tseang lae, in
future,

3» K*heu^ to go: as ^ ^ lae k'hcw, tQ go and corae ,
ife ife ^ *i" *e»ng lae seang k'heu, io ponder; ^ ^
^ ^- shw^S lae shwft k*heu, to talk over a .matter;
^ J£- £ seaou piih k'heu, unsaleable, cannot fee sold;
51 ^ chlmh k'heu, go out; .3&-i tsm k'heu, o> jfec
•^ juh klieu/to enter; ^ ^ le k'heu, or ^ ^ ^
ie k'hae k'heu, to leave, to separate 4 J^.^- kwo k'heu,
to pass aw4<ty;"& ^ iuy k'heu, to retire, to retreat- ^

^*na k :.cu,to take away; 'fr |f 4^ »a pwau k'hei^
^-ke away the dish; (the object, as in the case of ^ lae,
is sometimes placed between the two verbs:] ^ Jfe
~£? keang tih k'heu, it can be said; H ^ ^ keang
j>uh k'heu, it cannot b§ said; i ^fe k'faeutsew, to re-
cede and approach, twa oppc&itcs; j^ $- k'heu she, to

le*Ve the world, *o dxf»f#;?^F ^'^eu n^ell» ^ast Jear;
^ ^ k'heu how, afte^waKls.

^r T'hae, to wait, stands in our acceptation of the
word in conversation, apparently without any meaning:

as ^ jj^F 3i- £| i , rao f fcae yaou shwo lae, just as I

speL:

y6 fha^aou puh k neu, gno y5 i'hat-

yaou k'heu, 1 wish apt to gc, and yet I wisk tQ go xsg

CHAP. V, AritiLlA¥UE6, 85

v Ian fhaek'heih, having no appetite;
gi\o k^heu t'hfce lae, I went and am come again;
*JE $S£ i^- *>e fhae yaou fhan hae, do you wish tc
fathom the sea? This word is used in many i&ber in-
stances, and is generally fallowed by-f| yaou.
-ft Kan, to dare: g -$t k'he kan, how dare? Fol-
lowed byjjc she, it means perhaps, I guess; as *$L ?k
^f\ jji ika& she puh lae, perhaps he will not come;^
Jt^ Jill ^ ^an s^e P been gno, I guess he has deceived
me:' or join fe»jff pa: as^ *fa ^ %Q ^ )& ^ kaa
pa f»uh che taou sin tsing, perhaps h»ehas no knowledge
of my love.

If lAing, means to play, and trifle, er to effect in a
had sense, and is variously used: as ^ j& ^t ^ ^
lung t'ha woo nae ho, he brought him into difficulties;
|| ^ ^ ^ mae lung show ^wan, to show off one's
cleverness; ^ JjjjL lunghwae, to spoil; If ~jjf lung yew,
to lead astray : and so on in many other instances.

$3 Pa, alone; or joined to $£ k'hung, or preceded by
*•+ chih, indicates a probability: as ^ >{& ^ ^ Ip
k'hung pa we k*he shin, he has perhaps not yet risen;
*lfi 3§[ T11 -fj- Pa taou Pua ^5 we s^a^ probably not
be able to reach the pkce,^ >f& 3t ^1 ^. T chih
pa foo ts'hin sze leaou, the father is probably dead,

^ King, occurs frequently in the sense of do^ and
many times in a way which appears untranslatable; as
"-fj- ^-hingjoo, to order ;^ -jj;^ 4JT yen hing cha
na, to institute severe investigation and seizure; gp ^
jj& ^ tscih bing neen wkn, to institute immediate
search; tf ^ hing tseang, to bestow praise.

9. Among the auxiliaries may be enumerated #|
i^na; pif k'ho, "^ ts'hing,^hew,Jfef pe^. fy N^ng, is
-used in the sense of cnn, may, able, to do; as ^g f^
aang ts6,can do; ^ ^ nang seay, can write; % ^
^- yew n&ng hing, able to do; ^ ^ ^ g t^f kepuh
o^ng tsze poo, beco^ild v.^-t feed himself when hungry

?T K'ho, in the sen-se of may, or can: as Jl ^T ^
0 ^> ^ 0 IF ^ih k'ho tung k'how, puh k'ho tung
show, you may spe*]*, but you must ut)t act: i e, scotdv
but apt beat; fe ^ >j ye w to pdh k'ho, why rrot^

86 AUXILIARIES CHAP. V

?f 1& k'ho few, or in conversation *f M k'bomo, eau
it be4? and now and then;~*!f ^ k'hoshe, may ftbe?i^
*? ,^-lif twan hoo puh k 'ho, on no account Often
when standing before verbs, it gives them the adjective
signification : as W *j£ fc'ho.gac. car, beloved, amiable;
-if & k'ho MB, hatefiu Salable ;1?" Ji k'ho keen,
it is evident; "S" i|~ 41 /£• •% i^-V^c yaw shin mo
i»Bg keu, \vhat pi oofs are there, fr t; -gr *$| yew k'ho
a-vv^y chow, could anything he so aete^tatee; ^ A ^
k'lbo jin e,s*ieh as people would iike. It often indi-
the imperative: asyfr "5" ;li ^ ^ ^ joo k'ho
ua i:ha lae, go and fetch some tea; #£ pj ^
; ni? k'hc tso yih tso, sit a wttik, 1J J#. k'hc- e^
^f El|! ^Jk bo eh wo k, .fflay gain m<«iey;
r/. t)»e ead of sentences "if 3t£ k 'he ray. means that any-
thing is practicable or admissible; as j£ $% *f $L
bhihyenVho yay, it is allowable to saiokej^ if k'ho
k'ho, just &at In conversation & If se&ou k'ho, "trif-
ling; H Jf> ^T wo° P^n kjho, most certabily.

-f| Tsing, in the sense of to ask, request, is often used
by the polite Chinese to express the imperative : sa
~f| 4j£ tsing tso, pray sit down, ^ ^ ^S!Rg I^e, pray
came, || $j tsing w^n, I beg to enquire; "^ ^| ^
— ^ tding pe k'han f ih k'han. let me have a lof/k,

^ Hew, meaning to cause, to r^4 to leave off: an d
-$} P6^^ to ^e l6*^ °f» are often used tr> indicate the
negative imperative: as ^ || 7^ ? hrv>- yaoii wang
, do not forget; ^ >{f} ^ hew 14 ?ie, do not fear
- ^ ^fe hew tih kwo keen, do'nt be too
&. ^t ife' It 'ffc ^w keaou fha .seaou hwa,
«3o not let him make gam<; talk; jg[ J| ^ ^ |>^ yaoii
sac cho, do n^, believe: ££ ^ ^ J^ j^ peS yaou
c^iV7A, da not teilit

10. The ibliowiog^ w«a,-J| pa, ^ t^ii, kwti,
^ yih, ^ peBi, and ja£ ching> are all words descriptive
of the past tense; as -done} finished, &e.

ThuH ^ ^ keatig -wan, having said; ^ ^ wsm
pan, having maoagM ; jt H WTO p^% fu% prepared^
complete;^ ^ wan

CHAP. V. AUXILIARIES

3H Thing pa, having heard ;-|| T pa leaou,
done, made an end of ; 3f H chih pa, dismis^d: ^
^Q pa she, to desist from the examination;!! ^ pa
she, shut the market; ^ X pa km g, lea^e off wori.
Jt H Tsinsha, killed them all; ^ ^L tste too, ex-
tirpate tfe whole ; ^ ^ ^ $t IT pisg tsiih keae
e*n- tei!.», m<? soldiers were all killed; ^ |£ shih tsin,
Living eaten the whole.

*J?l Kwoytopass, ?;xceed, is used in combination;

thus j£ ill sbih kwos hsvfatf vi ~j ^ U kwc

Uaou 5€k> jih^ having ph-s*ed several feys; ^ ^> M"

>^ pe t'ha mwan kwo, was deceived by him, jj?- ^

^ -^ pub kwo pwan ncen-, uot more than half "a year,

^L Yih. to come to a close, to slop, is thus combined:
as -^ lisan yih, having scattered: — 3} ^f tt yih
taou tsan yih, with one blow he cut off his head; f^
^ M Sfe ho yflfcts&e cher how has it come to this; ^
*|£ yen yih, haviiig done speaking.

^ Peib, to terminate, is thus joined with othe?
terms: as |£ J^ hv;apeih, having finished speaking;
^ ^ yuenpeih, having expressed a wish; — ^ jj§
X ^P }ib n^en UT*k kung peib, within a year the work
was finufned; j|~ ^ tsir?. peih, having completed.

^ Ching, to perfect, is thus used : as $ $t ching
cho, finished doing it; $r; ^ ching keaou, finished the
intercourse; JGJf ^ >fe ciiit'g puh k'he, weuld not ef-
fect; ]$ i4 chiug tsaou, fully constructed.

1 1. Those which follow jg show,^ keen, ^ tsaoa,
ff ling, and p£t kih, are words that frequently describe
ihe passive. Thus ^sho^, no receive, J£ §* show
hae, to be injured; $ •$$- show juh, ta be i^sulied; %
^ show dioo, tx> be killed;^: ^Hj shcwhl:ir? or f; ^
ebow tsuy, to be punished,

JL Keen, to sec: asj? ^ keen seaou, to be laughed aty
or laughable ;J£ ^ ke^uieaBg, to be excused; JJi %
keen sew, to be ashamed ;J£, ^ keen k'he, to be re-
jected; X JL f£ ^ puh keen hwau pe, not to us
delighted,

gf Tsaou, to meet: as if % |[ tsaou k'biu hwos
to be ;£eJHged ; ?ft ^ tsaou. t-sib wei, to be environed

6 SUBSTANTITE VERBS, CHAP. V.

by the rebels; y| >£f tsacw <*r to be beaten. \IL Yu,
which means also u> meet, it frequently used in the
same manner: as \!L b|f ^ -^ ^ yu kwan rhe life
tsco, to &e oppresses! by the Mandarins.

^ff Ling, to receive, is sometimes used in the passive
sense: as ^gj f^li&g joo, to receive commands, to he or-
dered; *rji ^ lin<£ kaou, to be instructed.

ft* Keih, to eat, is thus used in a few instances; as
^ — ^ keih yih king, to be astonished; tfLJjtj keifc
kwei, to be injured; &£ ^ 1^ ^ keih sin shew koo.
to suffer distress. % Wei, to be, sometiH>eo assuaies thf
passive form: as ^ ^ ^ ^ wei t'ha so hae, injuyfed
by him.

12. ^F Tseang, to take, is frequently used in sen-
tences wlrere it is scarcely translatable: as ^ Jfa- ^
"^ ^ A tseaag ko tsiug shwo yih peen, he gave a
detail of the whole :$£ ^fc T ^ tee^ a'Jba hea yo/
he put him in prison; 4$p ^ ^ ^ tseang tseen keaou
fha, pay him the money ;^ ^ — SJ| ^ ^ tseang
jooydb taou chaou luh, to transcribe an order; $£ \^
;£ ~F J? >^ tseang peen t'heen hea sin ciie,&ought foj
him in the whole Empire. ( )ften, however, it is used
to Indicate the ftitee tense: as 7^ ^tseang tso, wil]
d°;^ M tseang seay, will write; % J^ f9" ^. tseang
yo ho wang, where are you going ?^J- $f *- £ kt
iseaug gan ch'bfih, which way shall we carry out the
plan; % $f ^r i % woo tseang nae ho, what shall i
do: ^ ^ tseang* lae. hereafter, in future ; $f- ^C ^ang
keih, almost, nearly ;4j| ^c ^ $fc tseang tsze wan
keaou, Laving near!? paid the wh>ie; -^ j£ E >f v^
tseang kin sr.n feang she, about the third watch.

SUBSTANTIVE VERBS,

13. They are the following: ^ yew, ^ nae, ff ke..
^ wei, ^ she, and JL tsae.

^ \>w, there is, also to have: as ^ A ^ Yew Pa
shwd, there are some who say; ^ |fr yC U yew
"huenjuh k'how, there are setne vjessete tb^t have en-

CHAP V. SUBSTANTIVE VEKBS. 89

tercel the harbour; $r % %jr £ so yew hing le, the
baggage that was there ; A % ^- *j| ye* yfw how
tsing, there was a strong affection; ^ ^ -f -*F kin
yew shih neen, it is now teir years ago; £ -fe % 4£
wei ehe yew yay, there never has been.

In the signification of have it occurs in w frequent-
ly: a$^ || A ^ ^ yew tseen, jin ke&e lung, if you
have money, all peeple will respect you;^ f yew $ze>
have business, occupied ;>^ J^ yew woo, have or cot
have ; the former is the positive, the latter the negative
verb substantive :$ ft & jfc fl yew jih sze woi>
jih, >vhca you are in possession of anything, think on
the day when you will have it not; ^ ^ yew le> it has
sonv- reason, or it is? reasoimble:^ ^ yew le, to have
politeness, to be polite; ^ 5% yew been, to have limits,
afew;ifc ^ yew soo, to have a number, several; *3t
^" wun yew^havc wot; in conversation ^ % we yew5
not yet have. It fa also used to indicate the past tense;
as |f Jfc yew \eang, they hava said; $&$%<$*
king yew ehih Ibg, he lias already ordered it.

^ Nae, is used th&s; jft ^ A gtio »ae jin, I am a
*nan;75 Jt ^ naeta 1160. he was greatly incensed ;
^ 3j T $ *?na nae ^^a ^eu? ^e was dismounting
from the carriage;^. A 7^ ^ 3JL "$' urh jin
pC?h fuh yen. the two men did not speak agaio.

^ He, occurs in the following connection: as -g
A he haou jin, he is a good man; J} ^ j| y^
heleangkew,itislongago^J^ ^ ill $£ *£ 3
we he tung sze ehe taou loo, it is the way to lie with
him j& >$? ^ ^ woo so he wee, there is no property.

^ Wei has a great variety of sigoific^tkms: is ^ J^
wci)m., to be a man, or to aet the man;.^ )>5? jg. Jb
wei jcih woo wei, it must be done;|||.^ nan wei, to
make difficult, to atmoy;^[ ^ yew v/oi to h;we any-
thing to do1 ig. '§ woo wei, ta have nothing to do. It
is sorcetimc .-: coimeeted with >1 e, to cou^ider, tc view:
as W ^ "¥ A. e we* »hing jin, to coiwider him iis a
sage. It is often used to indicate the pas^tvc: AS 3| A

^)f ^ wei jin so ban, to be hated by rn*>n : ^ jjg ^
^ wei chungf so sin. to be believed bv iiil;, g -g $^

90 VARIOUS CLASSES OF VFBBS CHAP. V.

wei sih fcv me, M awa) by lust (See also the Prepo*
sitions.) ^, She, ib thus employed: asJe Jl ^r she
hwaiig ^e, it Is the Emperor, Jfi ^ -iP J& pub she joo
tszc. it is not thus 5^ j|i] ~£ ^ shetsih yen she, when
it is so. say that it is so; Jg ^fr ^- jo she hoo, is it thus *?
?ll^C i% & ^ she ching ho sin hoo, indeed what
heart is this !

$L Tsae, is thus <ombined: 7\i ^ -fe- t'ha yew tsac,
he is there :^ JL puh tsae, he is absent; 3£ ^ jjp ^g
foo tsae i\a !e, where .'bcs the fit' er ^ivrclit ^- >fL Q
^ sze tsae muh t«een? the busmess is before your
eyes, present;^ ^ ^ tsae bug meen, to be in one's
presence; Is 4§L tS2etsae,tobeone?^:rMf; ",f- & J^ T.
puh tsae hwa hea, need not be told. It ought to he
remarked, thai $L tsae, always indicates the place of be-
ing in, (See also the Prepositions.)

Notwithstanding the variety of these verb*, thr nrp
often left out where our laneuage would veqi --;- ;

^ 4 H A gnto chimg *«i*v6jiB, 1 am a Chinese.

VARIOUS CLASSES OF VERBS.

1 c The distinction we draw between the neuter

and active verbs does not, from the nature of the Ian-

^e, sxistim Chinese; in a few instances, however,

mark « Is \vritlen above the w or a > indicate its hav^

ipg adopted aa active- signification.

15 The passive, as we have already remarked is
indicated by J^ keen -^£ show, }A tsaou, and other
*rerfcs. Besides these forrna we may ?ti}l mark the fol-
b^ing &1fc A k'he yii jio, or,^ J A k'heyujin,
pised by men. So sko ^ 5t ^ "l>?! nr»nng ke keaoa
i^un, taught by him, ^ j: ^ ^ rnung ke paoa hoo,
protecte i by hinic

^ ?e, is also frequently used 111 tiiis sense: as^
S ^ 3^ Pe mow sn^ cnfc *iH^d fay some body ; ^
W. ? i®r ^ P^ Iwan keun &o sha. killed by the re-
nous army; ^ ^ ^ tsin pe sl^ou, entirely &m*t;
Pc fJr tseang t&o, pttrced with oae

C'HAP. V, MOODS. 91

tornit of the spear;)*, ^1 W~ tfc 3 ~& fan pc t'hs
shwoleaou gno, on the co'Ttrary it was told me by binr
So also $b yewvawd occasionally @ vin: as t& 1$L JIQ
vew t/hu k'ha' ^h£, esUliibhod by him: g] 3L ||
yin heung pa lurig, denied l^ ti<\ b- T*1 Kiay

weii also to notice phrases like the following: .A.
M ^§ jini yew woo teih, or A iSf ^ ^ j^ so
heen chay, hated or detested by men; *pj~ >^ ,^£
^" ^ J\» k'ho lecn wang kaoush^jin, the man H'UO
£S falsely accused and killed, is to be pitied; |ft $f f^.
shwuy so she che chay, by whom was he scut?
^ ^ she tse^ng teih wuh, these are stoiea
^^; ^' Uoulacchc ho. .stolen articles.
3)5 f& 1^ ;^ heguo tets6 chttv, > done bv

my broiaei

MOODS,

16. The indicative requires no comment, and of
conjunctive we have already spoken in the case of *J
k'ho, which indicates a possibility or probability; at*
W ^ k'ho t&o, it may do; If ^J k'ho hiug, it may
be clone

Th^re exist many conditional particles, which circum*
scribe the conjunctive Such asjfH joo,^ jo«^ tang:,
?f t!baug4f yoo,^ shg, ^ kow. ^ she, $i Vng,
and ^ hwo. To give a distitict idea of their use, w.$
shall exemplify the various modes in which they arc
employed.

17. ^ Joo, andj§ j6, are nearly synonymous: as
itH ^ ^. J^. joo yew yin tseen, if I had money; j|JI
l!f ^ j°° sn°° taou,ifthe letter arrive. They are al»
jso combined; as^j 3& £. ]fc joo jo foo sze, if my fa-
ther were to die, j£ Jo, is more frequently used than
any other, either alone or combined as^fS 31 tang jo,

' J5 she, 4 ft jo kes* .* kwo jo,^ Jfc J6

.
tang jo pun ting, if he Jo not listen ;

jo i»bc pfih ching ping> if >he peace be a&l io*uvtauted;

92 MOODS, CRAP; V.

6 fee wan tseun,if it be finished ;&
vl; ^5t ^ kwo jo chihfa tsung sze, if incfeed he
adhere to the letter of the law and follow' up the busi-
•ness; jfe ^ & >£ jo she ch'huh leih, if he exert
himself; j£ $; ^p ^ jo jeu k'ha«g tso.ifhe will1 do
it; $ 3a % jfc 36 f£ 3$ jo ehay yew sin keu tseue
.jjno, if he have a heart to forsake me, ^<* Jcrc, is also
•used with 'K kea, to convey an idea of pvoTyiifcility ; as
flSL."flfc ;£ ^ ^5 kea joo we lib Ie, f;uppcsiDg you
could not make money: -^ ^ kea jen. aHcij^. <^, kea
ling, both signify suppose the same idea is conveyed by
f^U pe joo, and^ ^ pe jo as^f ^1 T> * $
^js ^ p€? j^o pulj tseang ke shoo iac, if fee da yet
bring the boek;^ ^ T 5 3f> ^f jjt pe J6 kwan
ytue;« piib kwan so. if'lhcMandaricg do not restrain him,
18, j^ Tanc^ 3^lH tang, are ^ynouymiK^ : -jfe.- ^
tri^rig fcwd, ai tH^fjf |^ taagjein, CBS^TS ^f; ^ $t ^t Ig,
t^g k&a king wet, if you wa to discbey; ^ ^ ^
^ teogb^dptth&teg-s if he 4o not go:^ ^ ig ^
yf^ X. taugjsttfuh^puhtbg^butif'kappmess fte
cerfaki.

.of -sm»y«r iffipcrt^; as

sin iub ujrk koo shew :i>uK just as if owe

cnectal effon., ari<l took otu? to ooe*s feet aod
sfewo yoo we leauu, <*re h- had done
yoofe*h^ it still may dc;$fjfe ^
f oo jo pah fao piag e as if aot endowed with
principles;^ "^ jfc >T -it) "% yoo &be pub
e, if perhaps not accotduig- to CKZ -> wfehes,
t ' Shg, ^t * *W h v5, md ft Ht ^hfe Ac, are used
% the same sense: as H: |f % J~ |i ^bwoye^ tsaa
, if iperhaps he have talent,^ it % H ^ ^
s*!ie chimb mun woo s^e, if p*Aaps fee may have
gone out and attended to his business.
if Kow, bear* the same sense: as if ^ ^p ^ ^
H^ay tsze,ifhedo -not neglect to write:
kow £uh jeru if it" be not thu-*; ^ 4f ^
icow ysw che yu tih7 if he have an
to virtue

CHAP, V. MOODS. 93

*, is mostly used in connection wiitifJt she,
bui sometimes occurs alone- : as{fL-|& pf ^ she >>oo
yulo, if it do not rain:^ $t f[ ^ & <fe k*a sh^
hwang te g&n chun, if the Emperor grant it.

$fe Tstimg, or'JK jK feung jen, are to be met with
as $t <?*" H f»| -t- ^f tsung kin jih taou pun heang.
suppose I were to arrive to day at my native place _. ^
^ J^- ]tj£ tsungjen shmg teih, suppose he were to >
vercomc the enemy,

^f Hwo. and 9g J$ fatr6 chay, perhaps, likely, if
may be, bear the same sense: as ft $£ ^ ^ $& hwo
jtja hw6 puli jen, it may be so; or it may not be K>: $%
J& $. 88 J3 ® ^w^ c^ay shing keen hwuy kwo? he
may pss'hapB avail himself of die opportunity and return
to his country

19. Words !ike$C kan, ^ iR to k?^,.^C ^ feau
ehe;^>]& kau pa, 01 jt ^& chili pa,^ Jf6 kuaa* pa,
* ^ ^ Pa P^h ^* ^P ^ and htopah*^ often
indicate the conjunctive. (See auxiliary ^eibs j So also
!>• ^p to twan, S ^ paois kwan, end ^ ^ kwau
femg^ as^- ^ ^ ^L M S, ^/ to frvan we k^ib che
woo &etms fei is most likely (he may be) not yet 5ti jests
of age, ^ ^ ^ -^ J ^v>^ tsing feew hao-y lts«it«u
it m&y b" immediately vtell U ^ %j jfi] ^ PA«XJ
yew le ta, he may i>e successful, or it is U&ciy
will be successful These forms are e^du&ivelf
in conversation.

20 T^ $p Choo fei and J^: ^ choo Eeaou, staaS
for i^/a^v as St ^ U| ^fe 1$ ^noofeik'haekinkang,
unless you relax the prohibitions $£ Jfe S^ i* jfc.
1& *5~ $L c^lao ^ ^eu tse» ^ e tih teze yay, unless yt»«
irvAfry, youc^za have no children;]^: ^ ^ ^ f^ ^
choo ieacu shay te tso wan, unless my yon-ngei brotkei*
writs the csoay.

2L Jt f Sho .fbot* ^ shoo ke.#, — snd
yih, cccur in the sense of perhaps, as JS. -^ ^ ^
ioo k'hoyay, it may perhaps do ^| H»^? ^ If ^
shoo ke k lie ching tseeu wan^, .he ma\ fciliaps lure
gono on liiS journey and proceeded ^ *- )^ ^
yih ching sze, lie may iKjhap* finish the business

SNFINIT1VE. CHAP. V.

Say, although, requires Die conjunctive: as^. -fr
suy hing tih, although he practice virtue.

22. We quote still the following modes of convey-
ing the sense of the conjunctive Jffc $$ <&, $£ Yuen
joo chang show, may you live long; A »F $ * ^
^ Jf /I -& she k'ho jinyay, shun puhk'ho jin yayt
if this can be endured, what cannot be endured '? ^jjt ^
3fe -.18s "J ^ $5 nan taou gno tso ieaou pub eh ing,
is it possible that I could have erred'? ( -^ 3i Nan
taou, either with or without ^ jfe puh ching, is thus
frequently used, while it is difficult to translate it by a
corresponding term in our language.)-^, if . ^g $
^| "$£ nan taou hwan sze e he giior should she still
think about me? ~JJL xj jt ^ JL ^ tfc nan taou nyu
yew heung puli ching. can it be that the woman led
you astray; -jfc *t ?I ^ * & W 9| Jfc t'ha (*iy
tliow t'hat guo yay tuy t how joo, if he might resist hiro,
Imitiht also resibt you ?^. j^Alt ^ ^ % fi ke
puh tsaou hwa, gno puh i.aog choo, it he laave no luck, I
cannot stay;,y% *£* % fa W fc — ^ y'»g e che
yew, tseih tsseyih sze, if any bad action were to be de-
nounced, it is this, $| ^ J£L '$L %? A >£ ^ che ke
mmg, tsew jay jin cheuoov if you were to point out hss
uame, you would only incite the anger of ©thers.

INFINITIVE,

23. The Chinese language has no particular way
of expressing this mood; thus the forms ^ jj; ig gno
i>ae seay, 1 love to write, ^ ffe ^t tsingt'ha iae, request
him to come; are a mere juxta-positions of words. If-
a stress be laid upon the \vord ^o of our infioitivre, the
sen^e is conveyed by $ e, f£ che, and 5t >^l che e: as
$i %fc ^sk M % %, gno keih joa e yung cbc, i gave
it you to use it}^ ^ ^ ^ 51 ^ 1^ ^voo keaou
seang kung che e pe, I called you, Sir, to prepare; 3l

-T S A IL Xt ^ f& keuntszegaejin5cheepoufuh,
the superior .man loves mankind, in order to spread hap-
s amongst them, ^ ^ ^, *J ^ woo che c i loo.

CHAP. V. IMPERATIVE. 95

cbe, I came to call him; # j, ^L - ~& ebwan t'ha
baou, be though? it well to gladden others,

IMPERATIVE

24. To what we have already said, whet) treating
of the auxiliary verbs, we may add the following

The Imperative is expressed by^Tfc/ho: as Sfe-^T
3fc ft joo k'ho seen yhi, do you drink first: "5" tt
k'ho cL'huh xnniu go out of doors. But tr«is form i*
useJ towards inferiors, seldom to equals, and never to
superiors; in which latter casefff ts'hing, pray;^ ke.
beg: and^ wang, hope; are substituted.

25. To express let, the Chinese employ severs!
words: as Jj| -ftfc-f£ t?hing t'ha tso. let him do it; &
^ ^ ^[ ^ 3$ yew tih yangshartg ganpan, let the
Hong merchants manage this well; ^ ^ -£ yunggno
fe'LeiL let me go;^| ^"^ping t'ha shwo, let him
talk:f£ ^^^ j*n foo choo fan, let the woman boil
her rice; $L JJL ^ ^ yu ke tsin yay, let him enter;
H^f ^ J^. ^ heu tseang cho pwau, let the artisan ex-
cavate the rock ; f i ^ $£ %& jin ping k'he ting, let
them get up the anchor; /^ ^ Jt ^ chun gno k'he
ching,let me goon my journey; ^t it ^ fj- yun che
poo hing. let them walk on foot,

26. Often no other term than the simple verb is used
to indicate (he Imperative: as ^ ^ ^ "ffe T^tso,
gno miDg yu joo, sit down, I shall distinct! y inform? you.
A nide manner is sometimes employed by adding $| pa.
attheeiid; as^Sc ^ ^ joo k'heu pa, you beoif! go
asvay ! Whilst on the other hand, the ; >< 4 bins;
happy, fortunate, adds urbanity to the eipre^lc*: : as
Jife ^ ?4 ^ ^ ^ show shih po le hing e, recrive
my trillii)g' present: %= & $&J& 3$ hing \\oo keu
tsei)egno, do not reject mc;^ ^ hing t'hing, listen.

27. JL Tseay5 is very frequently used to indicate the
imperative-: as y£ jt ^ n joo te&iy keen k'how, do
you be silent: A %& ^ •£ t hing ming k'heu, let
us hear the orders a^d b< ^f r olio wed by a negative

95 THE PARTICIPLE. CHAF, V.

it signifies do not: as JL ^C ^f -}4 tseaypuh k'hotein.
do not enter; JL J| ^ ^j-tseay mo so hing, don't go
so fast.

28 Of'fk hew, und^ pee1, we have already spo-
ken. f| Mo, ^ wuh, and ^S-woo, are used in ihe
same manner: as j| tJL r*S6 shwo, don't say *«• ^ ||

f\vuh wei nan., don't be afraid of difficulties^ ~& ^L
vroo fan fa, don't transgress the law, 3+ -fc Puh
yaou. i& used in the same sense: as ^ ^ 55- pub yaou
kuh. don't weep :^fH^gDoyaoujoo seay, I want you
to wnie or write.

TH2 PARTICIPLE.

29 Stric.lv speaking the Chinese have no express
mode of conveying the participle; and in all the cases
where the genius of our language requires this inflexion
tLe mere Chinese verb stands instead thereof. Term.?;
like the following may easily be explained: as ^ f £ £§
1ST !F j°° tsoteih ho S2e, what ^re you doing ? g ^
l^f ^T % >'-"u shwuy so iriing chay^by whom was thh
ordered, ^ ^ g^ ^ l§ yun lae teuitung se, trans
ported goods; i 5fe g]> %* ^P ^ ^ le;h, tso. go,
keae puh k'ho ning, sending, sitting, or sleeping he was
at rest.

INTERROGATIVE FORMS OF THJE VfiBB,

30, The modes of asking a question are exceeding^
)y various, and for funher information we refer the rea-
der to the Interrogative Particles. Here we may, how*
ever, notice the following instances: as ^ $L %* &
joo lae puh lae, do you come, 01 do you not come *? ^
# Ifc % £ t, A ^ kliefei tso jih lae che jin
loo, is he noi the raan who camt yesterday ? ~&f •$£ -?f
^ ksl?.o ehing foo, can he walk?^U ^ -^ 0 A
^ ^ j(>° bo till yu jin wang lae, how can I have in-
with wen ^

CHAP, V. TIMB. 97

THE TEASES,

31. The Chinese verb is devoid of those nice dis-
tinctions which reader other languages so accurate m
expressing time. It is true, that (here are a number rf
auxiliaries and particles to convey the idea a: th* ten-
ses, but only then, when a stress is laid upon tfee lii?M
that anything happened or was done, arc thewe wor<k
used: 'J| seay, may therefore signify, to write,
write, wrote, or have written.

3THE

32. 3*5 -fe? Gns seay, means 1 write, and every Bo-
ther vetb thus used, without &*iy additional
may denote the present tense; but if the act of
just now taking place i& to be marked, the
particles serve to indicate it: ^ kio, BOW;
kin, at present; |^|^= been she, at this present time;
$L fe been tsae, here present ;Jt,||, heen tseea, m
one^s presence;^ ^{ heen mdh, before one's ey^s;
within ^ joo Ma, tfi ^ urh liin, f} ^ miih kia,
-J ^ yu kin, ail of which signify now. ThusJiL
jft $r heen tsae hing loqu he walks, or is now
^jj ^ ^ 1$^ joo kin yew tseen, he has money, or
now has money, jjE * yen tseen, g ~fi muh hea,
T k'Mhhea/^^ teeth she, or^ ^
when put before tiie verbs gives the same meaning,

PAST TIME,

33- The remarks made respecting tibe present
ply also to this tense. Of the particles used to iudietite
ikfec idea cf the itnjeifect, the folfevriag are the
freqvxnt, ^ Fiag,^ || &ng tsae, ^

98 PERFECT TENSE. CHAP. V.

j£ $L ehir:^ che.JE JL ching tsae, $L <he tsze,
^ |S. she che. x§_ ||| shih tsae,^ *j£ shih che, and
J§. *H shih tang, all signify ing just now, just about,
at the point. Tmis j£ $& ^ >fc Bj|,.. e^*n§ Paou s^a
che keen, whilst he was throwing stones; ( J£ ching,
generally commences the sentence, and H§ keen, stands
at the eiid:)£ & £ ^ :£ ^ * ^ ke lae che
she, yu pun tsae kea, when he came I was not at home;
$£.* 3fe ^ ^ t'halae, gno tsae k'heu, when he
came, I had just gone away ;^ T ^ 3? ^ Y& b«a,
yu feug wang, just when it rained, 1 set off; ^ ||| j&:_
]^, ehih tsae kung teih, just when they attacked the
enemy: j$f tfe ^ j^ shechetung Iung5 it was just
then in the Rjidst of winter ; 3fc i i$ ^ ^ gnok'heu
teih she how, when I went aw&y.

In narratJYeg, the mere verb without any additional
partickis use d to convey the idea of the imperfect kctaM*
as JL ^r ^ ^ -fc • ^r £. k'hung ts^t- tsuh nt;en
tseih shih san, Oonfaeins dica at the age of 73; $ %l
Hit M li ^Kn *A tsaou cfcuen chih, the merchants
built *oaie vessels.

There are a great Diany other expressions to indicate

the imperfect tense: for instance $£_ "^ ^ ® I? ^

4 ^ tsuag taeen ko kwo mih kih tseih hwuy, in

.fwtney times the learned of every nation assembled

together

PERFECT TENSE.

34. Besides the words we have enumerated amongst
the auxiliaries, such as 3p peih,]*£* yih, ^1 wan, Ice.
the following particles deserve notice, as designating
the past tense; J lesou, £ e.y^ king9§L ke5 ^ tsang,
f shang.i ft e king, -f; &•*£& kmg,f l^ts^ng
king, *^ ^ tseen king.

^J Leaou, stands always at (he end cf sentences : as
$Jt 7 ts^ leaou^done; ^ ^ T $eay tsxe leaou, hav*
ijig writtea; ^4 ^ ,^ P<5 tjha tea leaoa, blamed by

CHAP. V. PERFECT TENSE. 99

iu E. and fe ke may be instanced thus: -? ft /f£
^ -^ *£ yu ke [>a«g u*h shih she, I have already
boil ed and eaten it; £, ^ ^ ^ 3 e pan le sze leaou,
having managed the business : & J£ ' e che, has arrived;
d ^ JL It e t«in keen e, it h&s l>oen found,

IS King, and|i J6. been'., king, omir as follows:
15 ft Ifr king hingyu, I have ordered it; |g, $j^ $
7& ^L been king sze hw&n. Iwan, the business has been
brought into confusionll UNeS king, i^iost frequeptly
occurs in edicts: as -J£ %OL ^c &• ^C ^ neg^ing p&e
ping kung keih, I have already appointed soldiers to at-
tack, ^f j(S Tang king, is also met with; as^ ^

^ ® jfe ^ ^ tang king -weikwS choo tszehae, we
have removed from the Enipire this evil. Also & ^
e king: as 6 M. W ^ ^ e king foo t^ chuen, he
has already embarked.

^ Ts^ng, is not uncommon: as ^ ^ ^fe. 7 tsSng
shih fan leaou, having eaten ric6;-^ $£. M 3ji ts&ng
king k'he chiug, he has already gone on ths journey;
^ 1^ ^L ^ t'ha tsS.ng hang chuen, he has already
sailed.^ ^ pub t&^ng,^ ^ we ts£ng, occur in th«£
sense of no* y*tf; as L ^ i 3^ we ts^ng shang
t'heen, he has not yet ascended to heaven; ^ ^ ^
^ puu tskng tseih hwuy, they were not yet assembled.

^ Shang, may also be noticed: as ^ ?] 31 ^J8 $
shang yiu yu chaou nuy, he has led him into court
But this particle is more used with the negative: a« £~

^ >P 1$ we shang puh le, has never been without
gain; ^ '4" 3* f& we shaixg puh kan? never feiled in
being moved by it^jL^r^^^^^ k'hung
tsze shang wei wei le e, Confucius was once a com-
missioned officer; ^ i" ^ Jf A ^ ^ gno shang
yu foo jin shw6 kwo, I have spoken with the woman.

Mark also the folio wing sentence: as ^ JL ^ yew
keen fow, have you seen him or not; v£ ^ ^ -ffc muh
yew sM t^ha, have not yet killed h|ni; g^ H. ^
jib ts« w^u, i< wa* fiiii&hed yesterday.

100 TEffSRS. CHAP. V.

PLUPERFECT TKKSft.

35. By the use Of the particles indicating the Im-
perfect terse, and those of the perfect, the pluperfect is

Mug ts&6 yabu ming, shifemuh tseang e king kan
leaou, just when he was going to give directions,
it happened that die carpenter bad already cut down
&et,ree;]t % £• Jfr"' Jfc.. & & W shih tsae teou
•ck*ng. heuv:g e eVhuh mun, on his arrival at the city,
tny brother liad already gone out of the fate;^ i
^ & j% A M \H * e sSng lae she, ping jin king
kwo she. when the physician came, the patient had al-
ready died.

FUTURE

36. We stall not here repeat what we have already
<aid about the auxiliaries $&• peih, and^ tseang, which
are used to convey the idea of the future tense, Words
tike the following $f ^ teeang lae, ^ ^ how lae,
JK *Z & tsae ehe how, >i ^ ehow,^ ^ *ze..hawf-
and^ tsew, serve likewise to indicate catling time: as
II ft vfe *$L '*jf l£ ^ A/tsie tsze olie how puh
£uh sin jin, after this I sh&ll aever believe people %aSn;
-^ $i -fr M 3f & how lae tsae yew fang ft, after
that we shall again have some means of managing the
scatter; % ^ ^ % f£ fk tseang lae puh yaou ts5
Iwaa, afterwards, or its fiitore, he will not give rise to
dbturbances;^ % ^ ~3& %~ % tsae yui& te tsew
k*he shin, lie wUf -go -on his way at tfe^ end of the month;
W S ^ & 7» ft hwuy ^vkwo, ting tsae hea seuu,
he will certainly return to his country daring the last

-teew ft t'ha? if be revenge himself I shall punish

you come, I «hall not go. Of all fee teu*<*5 tlvb
rtle V.a«t particul^iized, nor arc ^ tseaisg, ijt peife,
and dhuuar gfammttkal j>artieles always put, whcu our

CHAP. VI. ADVERBS. 101

language peremptorily demands them. 'The Chinese
lire in the past and present, and care tittle fa fuhmty,
and tins may account for their having so few terms to
convey the meaning of coniing time

PERSON AND NUMBER.

37. For th« perspn we refer te the personal pro-
noun, and only remark, that the pronoun is often left
out, indeed it w considered to be inherent in the verb,
while its omission gives rise to much obscurity.

Hie impersonal verbs are like the following; as 7;
f§ hea yu, it rains; T 'fj: hea seu£5 it snows; j| ' H 3k
she kwac gno, it concerns us;^ ^ jfa $jk she ling
gno hwatn, it occasions me joy: they are soir^tmsea dk-
tiugiiif hed irctn the others by the addition of /#• ^
peih seu, must; and i e, ought

38. Of number w« merely observe that the Chi-
nese verb is never affected by it In our remarks a-
bovet if?e have not spoken of the indicative mood, be-
cause i| is the simple form of the verb, without the ad-
dition of any grammatical particle; the potential and
optative moods are imaginary forms of the verb, which
have no existence HI the language, and have been in-
vented to suit Chinege grammar to that of western na-
tions. Should the student not find any of the gramma-
ticai distictions explained which other tongues exhibit,
he has only to refer to the particles, where some further
elucidation will be given,

CHAPTER VI.

ADVERBS.

1. b? a fev? instances the adjective becomes an ad-
verb by adding $; jeu. acd^t joo, to it: as ^ ^ f&

103 INTEHJROGATIVES. GHAF. VI.

Riang jeij, vaistly;^ ^; haou jen, well; It $fe
jen, beautifully; >}§ "tSj jttt *$£ seunseun joo y ay,
sincerely; ^L DSLr&t <& hang hang joo yay, unceremo-
niously, without shew. Adverbs are also fo*i»ed by
prefixing $ e, to a substantive: as gt H « e, justly;
$ fi. e le, politely. In other instances the adjective
is very generally used as an adverb.

INTERROGAflVES

2. The Chinese language is rich ia thit class of
words, and we shall endeavour to enumerate the .prin-
cipal j&odes of interrogation.

^T Ho, is an interrogative pronoun of which we
have already treated. BJ W Yin ho, $£ ^ wei ho?
^mf ft ho koo. fpj ^ ho wei,^f ^r ho keu,^ l^ho
yoen,and|^ f^T yuen ho, all stand for why, wherefore,
on what account, &c. as^il ^ joo ho, how?'® "iU ho
joo, how will this do'? The latter at the end of senten-
ces; as ^ ^ 1ST 4$ ke k'bo ho tsae, how will this dot
f*J ^ % ho kan sze,how dare I to die? ^^ -$t
*f* f? ^ y«- tsung chingfooho yew, in administering
the government what difficulty would there be '? JS ^
^[pf joo yu ho, what can he do to me? in 3E A ^
joo ching jin ho, how can he rectify others ? 'fcf -g| >fc
^ ho tih die shwae, what a failing of virtue ! ^ jfep
£ fiT -ke. joo cfce fao, how will that do? jSfU "^ ^ ^
joo che uae ho, what is to be done ?

^[ Hoo,^ woo, ^ ho, and ^ woo, all signify hew,
why4? a£f|| rlsll ^ ^ woo n^.ng taasr ehe, hew can
one endu^iiiis^ -g| ^7 ^ ffc hoopwh peon hwa. wbv
do you not reform? ^ ^ j£f" ^=- hots^ih tsae foo5 why
accumulate riches ? i>^ ^ jm Jlfc hoo wt^i joo tsze, how
is it thus?x% J?,^ ^fe woo tsiib taou tsae, how
it be worth while speaking of ? •«'•* *

-ft Ho, stands for why not? asm
%wd foo lae, why not return ? ^ -fr 'f ^ /s? fe
yen urh chej ^hy does not each of you express
opiaicaa ?

CHAP. TI. INTEBROGATIVKS, 105

4. jl K'he, signifies how ? as
Vhe yew isse le foo, how e&n such a princ.yie
JL jk ^ ^ & ?£ k he a wei ptih jin fooj why
endure it? H ^ ^ ^ ^" k'he tsae foo to shaou, fcow
does it consist in the quantity *? ji 3^ k'he tan, how
dare 1 presume"? (a common expression of .'polite-'
ness :) J[ J$£ JL ^ k'h« J8 she foo, how is it thus 9 J|»»;
^ ;fti ^- Jfc^ k'be yew kea yu tsse tsae, can any-
thing be added to this *? (ne plus ultra.) j§ ji J ^
3f '"^1 ^1;^^ ic'heurh tsge che so e niog keih
rssre, boTT can you swo geatieruen attain to this $ J£ *>fi
?$ W 7i^" ^ kvhe puh shin k'ho seih tsae, how is it
notdeeply to be lamented ?
^$i He has a similar meamitig:
^^^ ^ ic yew tih tsae, howhȣ he virtual . ^
3f* ta ke he puh yu&, why does he not sp^ok 1 ^ •->
"^ ^ >> S suy to, yih he e wei, though much, • yet
what is to be done with it "?

5,^ Yen, pccips at Ae commencement of a sentence*
ai? 3t ffi ^ yeD ywg'fihi, what will be the lise of "ki!-
Img him; ^ ^ p. ji ^ yenkjinyu e, ^hy for^
sake benevolence and justice ? ^ ^ ^ >^ Jfc jt
^. ^ she yen tih wei ta chang foo foo,. how can he be-
come a great hero.

^ Gan, has also the sense of the interrogative: as
£ ^ 3L >S? ^ g*^ tih teuh sin foo, how can you be
content*? |f ^ ^ it gan kan wang tsze, how can I
dare to hope for this ? ^ ^| J^ ^ gan n5ng to yay.
how ean we escape *?

6. J| 3)£ M6 fei, is not unusual in asking a qu.es-
tionras ^ # f& ^ j£ Ajjj mdfeilsewlie she jin
mil, iftitnot this man'? ^. 5}t B^ ^t ^ ? mo fe? ts8
yay tso leaou> was it not done last night? J^ ^ ^ mo
pub fcbe, is it noUo? |£ ^ £ ^ ^ ^ mo fei keea
leaou dn foo, he has surely seen the bride.

7> H- Ke, occurs in the sense of how, how many;
as H J£ -^ ke'to tseen, how much money? H A ke
jin, how many meaS^fe ^f J6 kau, signifias the
same. To show flievsrious modes m which Aow?is ex-
pressed, we quote the following: as $ tosh^iqa

104 itfTEJVRGGATIVKS. CHAP. VI.

cb*ng; or &t «ha»g.ke beu, how long? A e

3j> j?n K:e to,- or ^ ||- iH* A yp.w ke ko jin, how many
omr? ^ S* ^t y«^ k« kzey# 5f Jfe ife to shaou
tbse soo, $» || -j»f tsgfc ke ho. all signify how many
times $ a$ |f % »J? -j& maetot&aan tseen, ^ jjF ||
^y io fthaou m»e fenfe, and fr IS ^ ^T mac kea ke
ho, for ho^ much wa* It sold, or at what price ^

€. In esODversaticri the followi»g m^des of fcterro-
gsrtriK! are in use.

\fp NarasfB 1© ^ "t ^ ^t'.na lo hwan king
to tsxjy, whc will stii! jabber;^ ^ f^ . #f f. -|f
r>hc na ko t?ih show peih, whose handwriting is this ?
jf r- fg ^|; -^ A 4, ^ A nayih ko *he hapu
?:n she gi> jin, which is a good and which is a bad man ?
1$ ^ ;n ^t? ^ # * « na yew puhho puh nmh
cie k, why fihutud we not live ia harmony ?
:*P ^ Na Ie5 bow, whare; as ty jfg. £• nale k^n,
whitiber are you going ^^ ^ ^ ^ |g ^ na le
keang tih hwa lae, how can you speak ,thus ? ^T ^ $$•
k'ho uh haou na, is not that well ?

4 shkts fe JS ts£ng md, 4f 7f£ shin mo,

•

yangr* all signify in what manner? as £;
tving teih, "what $ 1C* ^r ^- *& ts^ng ^o haon'ne, how
will that be well ? -Sp ^ 5 k'heo tAng leaou, how i*
that to be done? ^& ^ ^ $f pa ts|ngm6 teih, what
do you fear? fcjfkdt^ Sfe is&ig ni<S kjhaa feili
di'huh, bow didyoufifctlit out?^ S >^ ^ ^ yew
shin mo sse keen, what h year business t if ^ ^sj-
^ jj, shin mo haoue sxe, wh^t gaod ioteDtious? >^
^ ^r ^ ^ ts&ng nae woo t&nng ymg? how is it thai
there are no traces '?

Nan t»oay jacccw wift ot without ^ jij p^
£he end: s^ip. ^ ik "f" ^ ^- ^ ^ ?^n
-Low kaou |u pik ching, have you first ac-
cused me £ Ip. M <$ ^ 3* san taou tso wan
have you finished the work ^ Sometisaes at the
; puh ching r*orely is used; ^ ^ fc & ?
pah Ifeib teaou-g^o- ^ub ^Hiug, will he

CHAP, VI.

9. The particles aflixed to the end of senter
denoting a question are the following :^ yay^lS
^ foo, jfeyu, or ratte^ yn, and,oceas
choo.

Yay,is very common: as^ ~$P sbeyay, kit
^5 y(f fow y ay , is it so or not 4? :|t |L ^ k wo keen
is this truly to be seen ? or ;^ lL jf» we keen yay, can it
not be seen "? ^ J>1 ^ :|t $f |f» Bo c ehe ke jen yay,
how do you know that it is thos? In a few
^ yay, is used forfl^ yaya

^ Tsae, is also of frequent oceiirenee:
tsae, what is that4! ^>ft.^ gai* tt»ae tsae9 where
it"? ^} /v.^ ^ yew JIB foo tsae, does this
from men ? J§ ^ JN. 4^> ^ mouanjinyay tsae, what}

to tyranize over people? 5 -fa -Ju ^- seay sin yay

ijb

yu tsae, does he write a letter?
e tsae, is ttot this proper f

^ Foo, is a general sign of the interrogative, at the
end of sentences: as tfc ^^ ^ i*e che taou foo, do
you know it*? |L HTsU ^ ^ k he k'ho hwa$ tseeij.
foo, how can you ,pay.-:the money? ^7 ^ ^ ^- put*
yih 16 foo, is it not joyful f

^~ Choo, sometimes occurs: as ^ ^ yew cboo, is il
ihus*? A ^ ^ ^ jin yew shay choo, should men a^
bandon him; ^ ^ jfg ^^f k'he li^ urbsbib cboo,
could he eat it^

Yu, and more seldom^, yu, are met with: ap S-
yu, is he a sage t ^ ^ Jft, ^ & *£
iew che yu, yih yu cbe yu, did be seek for it, or was
it given to him *? M Mo, is used in conversation: as J|
m6 fei ts?e iin mo^ is it not this mau?
^w keen ra6,nave you seen it ?
Fow, ifeitv or is it not ^ is a sign of the in*
as Jl "S she.fow, is it so or not ? ^ ^
Jfj- she fow k'ho bing, may it be done or not?^" ^
tsftng fow, is it done or not yet *? ^ J| ^ ^ fow yu
mwan neen, is be of full Age? ^ "1^ jftl ^- /Jk* ^.
^ 4!> tsijh hea^cbe woo sin yu fow yay> dd yon k?H>w
my intention ? -fe |4 ^ "^ fow, t$Jb puh tboo, if not,
sfcaU not kill them; ^g ;fc JL

106 NEGATIVES. CHAP, VJ0

fceih, if not he will not deliver; jf- ^1 ^ -fe wei che
ho fow, we do not know Whether it is suitable or not,

II. Whence Is expressed by^^My^tsuog ho
eboos fj ^t 'DS ^ tsze tvangho choo, whence; ^
ho &mng, from whence;^ .5? ^£ tsuny; na le,
from; tl ^ffe tsze pe, ^ ^ J| tsze kae choo, _ r^
yew pe, all express thence: and- ^jH ho cboo, where;;
hang ho choo, whither.

12. This is also a very numerous rJass: the princi-
ones are^ piih: as^ffifc ^P $ ts?..-- puh Jae. it can-
not be done ; jp, ||I ^ ^ P^^3 te^^b P^b le, neither
instant nor remote, i, e the middle course; ^ ^ ^
^ gno jew puh she, 1 have done something wrong;
Jf* Jf£' Jfi '3k pub tih puh klieii, I cannot avoid going,
^ ^- pub she, mi o time, sfjon;^ ^ pah ke, not
long, 'within a short time ; jfi Q pfih ] i'h, not mauy clays.,
shortly;^ ^ jfc ^p jHt puh yung puh joo tsze, i£
cannot be otherwise than thus ^ |^; puh jen, not thue;
7£ ^ pub bhe9 not right, wrong; gp ^ ^> puh tib
piih, ™wnot be avoided, must 4 ^F ^ ^ puh k'ho puh,
mmi not omit, ought;; ^ >J|t pub w^i not only; (fol*
lowed ^y^ JL yih tseay, but also;) ^ ^ puh f^v
lawless; ^ ^ puh Jeaou, or ^ ^ puh keo, linexpectv
emy; ^ — ^ ^ pub yKh iirh t6ubs wants scarcely
anything to be complete, ^|| piih yaoii do not; ^
^ pfih jo, nothing b^ttej than; jfc fe |g ~fi puh tsae
"Jbwa hea, need not be recorded; ^ ;l! JJL ^ puh ^€
tseay shwo, let us not detail this», but say— r a phrase
to denote the transition from one subject to another ,
| pub seaou, B^edlessr^ ^ puh seaouH degetse*
^ ^P ^ ^ baou puh hwan lo, rejoiced much
;|fe Woo, have aot9 is the opposite cf ^ yew, have^
^ -$k *f^ ^ Vew wo° tefog pe, whether or u<»t, there
be abuses; ^|| ^ PUB woo cbe, originally nothing;
^ ^R ^ iL ^ woo yew p&h jt>o fc<^ chay, chvii^h
fr*e»4 who is u^e<|uai to yourself, do n*>t hitve 3

0RAP. VI. KEGATIVES, 107

friend unlike yourself; -$& jfp 3lr >tf woo urh wei yew,
possessing aothi* g and pretending to have all; $& J|!J

•j| jjjj^ woo tsih yen woo, if you have not, say that you
have not; Jt $) $g ~|T woo yew k'hae yen, no way of
commencing the con versa tion ; @J ^ pf — $ ^. :§
kwu puh k'hoyihjih woo keun, an empire cannot be
one clay without a prince; .J&. -jfH woo joo, nothing like>
much better; ^ jj% ^ ^- wo° so P^n teae,- no place
where he is not, omnipresent; J$^ J9f ^ -£{J woo so puh
ehfc, nothing that he does not know, omniscient; %7 ^J
5 J&- ffii Jp 3r Ji- ch'hoo ch'huh yu woo, urh kwei
yu woo, it came forth out of nothing and reverts to no-
thing; ^ & J ^. )fr shih eh'huh yu woo sin, really
unintentional; $ jj? )£. Jt ^ $$* tsun nan chih oyu
keae woo, 1 have neither son nor daughter; J^ Jt $L
T ^ ^ t'heen shaug te hea keae woo, neither ia
heaven above, nor on earth beneath ; $* ^ woo changs
death ; ^ ^ 4fe ^VPe P^i woo yib* not one of them,
13. i}p Fei, and Sfeie occur: as ^ ^" A, >f% ^*
fei been jin puh fe^ho fray, none but a worthy man
^p; ^ J$L F j^ fei we;s yih5 not only, but; ^ ^"
fei fuache szej contrary to one's duty; ^ fc
fei pe tern chang, extraordinary ; the same a& 3fe
fei chang, uncommon ; ^ ^ she fei, right & wrong ;

$t ^L ^ ^T fei t'ha pGh k'ho, we cannot do without
faim;^. vfc ^ 1^ feif^motso, do, not do unlawful
things i$\ ^%>7w 3jiz^L fei ke kwei urh tee^ to sacri-
fice to the spirit of a man With whom we have had fie
connection ; If ^ 5fc 3t >^ kung fceu fei ke jin, to
recommend ao improper person ; ^ ^ fei wei, bad ac-
tions. 01 Fei, is sometimes used m the sense of wof,
which case it has always a bad meaning; as ffi
^ fei tih tuy iuns without virtue or with foad
to -sink into perdition,

^ Fuh,, is commons as w ^31 ^ fdh joo vay, ua«
equal; ^ "^ fuh kMng, UB willing yjL ^7 '^g Jt ^
^ ^ e fuh mwan ke chih she yew, he wfts afflicted
on account of not having fulfilled the duties of his
station,

,14 Jl M^ is a negative of p?oktbi%a; as

108 NBeATIVESc CHAP,

mo seaoti, doft't laugh i "SS? J?" SBO yaou yitt

tso )e$ou, do not make a mistake; J| fpj ^ mo tun^
show, do not proceed to violence: ||' ^ $16 shwo, don't
say. is often followed by "#$ tsew: as || 1^t~5fe ^ ^
^ life ^ ^ ^ ^ nio shwo gno yew yin tseen, tsew
she fibih muli yew, not to say that I have money, I am
even destitute of food. Combined with adjectives of
^ shin, it conveys the idea of the superlative degree,
as has been already remarked: as
shin yusze, nothing could exceed this;
teyut'heen, nothing greater than heaven;
mo tachekung,insurpassable merits;
kwo yu sze> nothing can exceed this ; (ne plus ultra ; )
Jfc m6 pe, incomparable,-^ ^. ^ ^ mo wang mo
lae, neitiier go nor come; J|3a m^> J°> $*& best, nothing
like.

Muh, occurs iu conversation; as ^5t 'i® ^r ^
ko ke hwuy, no opportunity; $& jh $T n>uh nae
bo1 ao resource, ^ ^ ^ ^" miih ko tTiow seu, no
clue; ^L ^" ^ HB m^1 yibjih heen.; not for one day at
leisure, % Jt y]L ^ Jp shin shang muh tih chuent
nothing to wear on his body; ^t 4E >fe ^^b Pa pi^g?
no handle to lay hold of ; — ^fSI ^ ^ ^* yih ko yay
muh yew, I have not one of them; -^- g^ jfa — |@
tsuen muh yew yih ko, none at all.

15. ^ We, occurs in combination, as ^ ^ wets^ngt
and ^- ^f" wechang, in the sense of not now, not yet;
thus ^ ^^ keih fen mo, have you eateii rice'? ^ we,
or ^ ^ we ts£ng, not yet; ^ ^ ^ ^ we lae che
sze, things not yet co&e to pass, future events , ^ ^r
we she, not hitherto; ^ ^ ^ ^ we yew che yay, or

^ 5^ ^ ^ we che yew yay, this has never been the
case; jj^ jjJ» we peih, not certainly, or not necessarily;

^ ^ ^ i& Jfc wei yew pub joo tsze, it never has
beeo otherwise; ^ ^ ^ yoo we tsuh, still discon-
tented;^ ^ we tiag, unsettled ;^^T we k'ho, can-
cot, or may not;^ ^ tsung we, never.

16. Of -5F woo, and ^ wuh, we have already spo-
ken, but add here a .few remarks :-$- Ir ^ ^ woo

kwd che, no need of m$kmg eo? ado ^bout it

CttA*. *1« «eAT*».

* J£ Ji $ woo lieu too jib, do not icHy spend
day: -S- 1^ |J f& wo° Ufk Ufk sin* ^° aot divide your
beart; ^ ,^ * wuh wei nan, do not fear difficulties;
^ Ifr ^Pt jf hing wuh fuhyen, do not if you please,'
apeak of it again; xft JJj ty ^ fc kwo tsih wuh tan
kae, when you have transgressed do not feai? to repent

17* J| Ivlei, audU* meg, are occasionally used as
negatives: as^ ^fc me chang, unusual; J^ ^ me kae,
without end; Jit ^ ^ ^ mei yew k'he^ wei^ there
was Rot one left; ^ ^ mee yew, have not

18. P5 Waiig,'^ woo,^ we, H p'ho, and some-
times "t wang, are used in ancient books as negatives:
thus (9 ^ wangkeih, unbounded; S| ^ Jit ^ wang
yew tsze sze$ there is no such thing; Jf ^ HJ ^] che
36 wang wan, do just as if you did not hear, jit Woo,
appears to be an abbreviation of |& woo: as |fe ^g ^
woo fuh fun, no share of happiness ;^ ^ we tsi5, no*
to do:^ ^| ;iiv ^ we yew sin far^notthe least cnu-
rage- g, ^J p'hc tsih, uniathoinabie ; ^
yih woo fang; the advantages are unbounded.

19 . 1 hese negatives cannot be used at random, but
the foregoing examples will serve in some measure ta
direct the- reader how to employ them.

To render the meaning of the negative still stronger
the following words are prefixed:^ twanf<^J tse&, ^
ke«g, ^ tseug, ^ tsun^^|. chung, || wan, ^ tseuen,
j^v ta^ haoUs^ seaou*j|l leo.and J| pitigr as f|f ^*
^|> ^T twan foe puh k'ho, this cannot on any account
be done; H ^ ^ ^ H wan wan puh shay tsuy, oa
no account remit sins;^ ^ ^. ^. tseeu haou woo et
not the slightest difference- ^ _$| fj= haou woo tsuy^
entirely ii»«ocent; |^ ^ ft ^ *seu6 piih k'hwau taef
not the slightest induigenoe ; j^ ^. — ^ ;$| ^. ping
woo yih kan sang ke, there was not one single standard.

20. A great many words are formed by these nega-
tives just in thr s^me maoner as with our in% uii-, l
and dis-; a$ ^ ^ M. yew tsing le, reasonable; |R-
IE woo tsing le, vuireasonable, ^ f^ yew le,
^ wix? ie, unpolite:^ ^ woo^ang,
woo keusg* eudlesfc fa woo

110 ADVERBS OF TIMEo CHAP, VL

f* ^fl) shin she puh le? very disadvantageous;^ ^
Woo tfcth< peerless; ^ ^ puh jin, not only means des»
fitute of benevolence, but cruel, tyrannical; ^ g. puh
£bin, unministeriike, rebellions; ^ ^ puh jin, eornpas'
skmate ; ^ J^ woo too, inordinate, lieentiouSo Besides
these, there are a great iaanv similar words, which, by
prefixing a negative obtain an opposite meaning. The
Chinese are also very fond of repeating the same idea
with the negative: as ^ W Jfc Sfe «*ei urh puh chow,
beautiful and not ugly, i e. very beautiful; ^g j£ j?g
3fe 3E ^ twan thing urh fei wae seay, correct in con-
duct and not depraved;^ ^ Hfc ^ $% ^ k'hin laoit
ping puh Ian to, to work industiiaariy and not tf» show
remissuess.^ ^ M ^ ^ jfi> show k:hoo ping woo
gan fuh, to suffer misery without the enjoy meat of any
happiness.

2 1 T \ »• < "i only aflirm , but render the

•oiv^er; a* j£ ^" ^ ^J ]Jfc we yew
puU joo.tsifce, it oil • ^wiseijfjf

]J ^ }g- mejihpuh day without ttrinkiog of

yoij> *. c. to think ever\?' day, ^ $k llji Jj l^ wootsia
ieih, me*»-setf to the utmost; |g_ j^ ^r woo puh

che.tn kwow every tiling ; JR. '^ f| woo pah

22. >^- Bhe« yew. and h*.-. stand few our
sbJh , tsae, means really;1^, f$C kwo jens in
tw*fi je»., det:idediy; -— ^. yilt fciag, certainly;
verily * <fr j| iangchinfi*iily^. ^ gaa ta%
assuredly ; ^. chin fchifa, iruiy • auci tft ^f ching

ADVERBS O^ TIME

23, We shall enumerate the principal ones of this

CHAP, VI, ADVERBS OE TIME> 111

She, means tim^ or when as Brf £ $| ^ she
fisoseay tb^ when he sat ;dowu to^nte, & H It,
^Hf ch huh muj) the she, when he went out of the fifate;
$t A >£ ^ 1l£ chiBg jin c he she how, whan he had
become a nsaji3 or was of age;. 0?f % she she, always
constantly;-^ jj?f me* she,veveiry tvme;-Sf ^f ping hhe,;
ordinarily.;^ ]^r ^aou she, a little •. ^hile;^" j^p- kew
she.^b W seen she,^ J}^ seih she, r;/xiHJp l|^ chow
sh* » al) mean formerly; Jt ^ tsze she9 at, this titsjei
§" 8^ *aug «he^ ^ she she,^ jj^ wei she, and
& ^ 1^ *ang s'^e f*6 ^ei a^ signify, at that to .

.
f'ha «lie, at another time; ^ how

in future, afterwards 3j ^ ^- BUY she, imniediately, from
time to time ; ^ ^ v^w sh6, soijfi^timies;^ g^ ho she,
^Jj^ kes^and in convefsatiop ^ ^ j}| j^vhin
mo she 110 w, nil mean -when1? fp ^ tseih she, i
atdy;||f^ is'he tr&nh, every moineDf>^ tBo
^ ^jfi ^h«- ctie, |u^t^l thai time; 1$ $? hwo ^^, «i a
sertaiB iime;% tf^ rha *N,|| ^ ^ ^h^^ ^F
peen she, and --^f 1^ I i» a short, time, ira*

mediately; ^ 8^ jffl t&ng she Heii, within a rKoment;
^ ^T ban she^eklom.;^ J^ h<? she, alwavs.

24o ^f Tseih., fvhh it& eombiuations, niet?i<s MI : ,-'•• / -^
ly .: as |p -fg. t^esh. peen,^ |j} l^og ts«b, Jj? J^F] i
Vhik^ |p Buy tseih, .^ fp eho tsefe,-f^ |jj
lseihrall signify taimediateiv, l.he san--

%^ It seaya^^^ -^^^ ^gv^ Hit kv-ig fe

;); ^ bhaou k Bg,t^^| ^ king klii'h keen,^ $fo
go jen, ^% IS go king,^ gp chS t^eih.^L $£ chajen,
^ -^ shun keeu,)^ f , ^ ffl shun »hih che keen,
4J3| ^ fan. jen, ^£ g^ p*aB heaag, and Jff Ji feew
teeay.

25= 2 I 'Kfl bv-T - X -T"

feeih t«aoys ^ tf- ? fg- ^ tsir* ip

H?'^--"? kedyili .iirf»o, V'- ;, j^ Jf

tsaf»D, s :£> expressed by i^, kin, j£

kin j?h,^ siu, ^ ^ ^ 3/L we yew to fep
foo king: formerly, reads thus: £L

w«gt

112 ADVERBS or TIME. O#AP,

jg| tseen t'how,^ ^ tseen hang, ^ ^jt tang seta, —
^g- yih ceih,J| -f^ nang* seih, andHlf -far ehow seih,
^ £} Seihiih, on a former day, ^ ^ koo she, ID for*
mer times; J-, ^ shang kop, in high antiquity; A- i
f haekoo, in wry high antiquity. Afterwards, is ex-
pressed by jj$ ^ sze how, ^ \J| how peen, and ^ Jig
how f how, 8£ p Tso |ifir means yesterday; ^ 0
tin jih, to day; ^] B tseen jih, the day before jester-
day; B^ 0 ming jih, to-morrow;^ fl bow jih, the
day after to-morrow;^ ^ tseen neen, the year before
Iast5^|| ^ kew neen, last year;^^ kin ueen, the
present year; B8 ^ wing neen, next year;S- ^ mei
neen, or ^ ^F Been neen, yearly.

26. Whilst, and during, are expressed by B§ keen,
l^"tse,^!J kang,and jEching: as Jt ^ lUf }SJ chinge
lun keer^ whikt they were debating; ^ jfc ^ ]^

szechetsev between life and death; ^ ^.^ H?J
che kang, whilst coming to the engagement:
^ shing yaou kliae yen, whilst wishing to
speak; jJfc 1?| |S5 tszeshe keen, during ;\it ^ leenyay?
during the night; H y% ^ BU ching choo rfaow jkeen,
wMsi in a state of indecision, Hitherto5 is expressed
by 1% ^ heang lae,^ $. tsung lae. $} jJfc taou ts^e,
$^ ^3 ft* taou joo tsse, and $>J ^t ^ iaou joo kin.
Henceforth, by ^ £i ^ kin e lae, ^ ^ K/. ^ tsze
Mn e bow. Till and until, by^j^t^ yu, \^ j&-
yih yu,^ feeih, ^fi & chih che,l|, ^- tae kin, ^ ^
keih che, and ^!i i-aou.

^ Chang, ^ ^ chang »she, >lE ^ hang chang, »}s.
^ ha jig: she, '^ ^ cbang yue»5 ^ ^ puh twan» ^
|^ ptsh tseue. ^ ^ tse^ leen, ^ ^ and k'hih k'hih,
ineati constantly, always.

27, "J Leaou» as we have already remarked, seems
•|o indkate the past: as -f ^ ^, 5 tso kwo leaou, having
<km&ii;~|& ^ ^? yu we leaou, not yet finished speak*
^K»^ ^ ^ ^" ^ tow king too k'heu leaou, went
fa the capital ;' ^ "J ]IL ^ ^ ^ §how leaou t»«e
iSagiiag juh, having receiverj this insult; ^ ^ 2^ 5
is pas eleaon, hejog %esBec!, $C ^ €^ 3 «how shifae

having collected tb^wiiolo- li is» ^bo repeated

CHAP. VI. ADVERBS O* *LACB. US

several times: as % ^ ^ 3 & 3 ^ 3 Jaou yay
na leaou> ta teaou* kin leaau, the Mandarin has seised,
beaten* and confined him inprbtm; ^? J »$L ^fc~ leaou
leaou yay we, is it done, or not yet done. Often it is
put at the end of sentences merely for the anke of eu»
phony: as }1L^ ^L^fe J*H @ jT chay yew she naa
te muh leaou, this is a difficult theme, it is not mifre-
quently preceded by ^ yay: a& J^, ^ ^ 3fe S yay
tftj shin shi^uy ieaou, his virtue is very mucfi degeue*
rated; ^ ^ ^ ^jC |^ ^ yay puh kwan ne^ze leaou,
k d^es not concern your affairs; ^ ^ ieaou ssev 6r
^ y^l Ieaou -keuh, theaftair is done; $ JtL ieaou keep,
to see thoroughly; ^ ^ ^ )ffi ^ leaou leaou jen
ming pin, very plainly; ^J ^ ^ leaou puh tih, exceed-
ingly unbearable; ^ ^ ^ JS^T -f^ shih' foa ying
heung leaou tih, the bravest of the brave ; ^ ^ $ ^
5 3 ^ c^ay t^ng ieih ieang joo ho fcaini tih,
a degree of strength how can one withstand; *$
1,^S ^ l^a^ p&h tib ctay mo haou, ex-
eeedingly excettent: ^ J?> ^ ^ .>Sj l^j^ kaouipuh
eih kea heuog kiB laou, the diligence of ^iny elder bro*
flier is excessive.

2* EV &s ^^ have already remarked likewise indi*
catea the past: m £, ^ e seay, I have written; 2* Ug o
urh, past the proper time: Jfjj €L urii e, tht? whole w
done, nothing more; ^ gfg ^ ijg ^ yew Ieang yift
urhe, I hav* only two taels1 ana »c more* Jfc
piti iih c, no resource; g, ^ c rfiio, too mncfe
^ J| bae tsie e «, here tf^ com« to an eud.
"

OF

28. Tfee fallowing are the mo^t frequent;

chay lev
teac ^ cho^fc L ^e so te<*€, all

"p«, Jfc

feng3 jBp $ fc n& iu» Use,
? sta^d aevenliy for
dioo; i

-114 A9VCKM Or epDAKTITY. CHAP,

i» ev pressed by $} y& yaw tsze,;^ $fa fcsimg
'^ by^ D& j|t &^r'g n& «ho®7;$^;$t tsvsti
•Our word towarSs, S expressed by jfg heaag, a»(
'wang; asJnJ Jt heang jiuaig, upwards;]^ "p heang

downwards;^ g wang se5 west-ward;^1 -""*
pei how9 bark ward ; $g ^| l^ang teeen, or"|| tse
lbrw»rd;5^ S wae mee0j outward; ^. ^ k ween,
^ j^; choo choo, and J^j ^ taou choo,

ry ^ M jl^ P^ 'im ^° c^°°? *^ ^

keu' ho chooa whersspsves; ^ :§| • x£
taou che ehooa and Hi) ^S ^ ^ h^^ng shin te
wfaithersoever; rf* chung, xj^ @ chuag feeefij aod,
^: dkung yang, all signify middle,

iiDVEBBS OF

29. ¥ M Pih pwaB,^ It eboo pwai^ all
various; it ^ehay pwan, this sort such;2fj
pwam, that s<avt; — Jg^ yih pwan. — jgi yfh yaags
same; || ^le yau& oificreDt; ^| ^ chay pwaa? ct
•^t ^ . jt» pwan, such. So aiso^f ^ ch^y t&ng, ^}i
JJ^ }oo ts«e,^j[ jj^ sse tsae^ such Ska
•

^). WbeB treating of the ruunmU we adduced &
number oC this dass^ we sfcafl here tneeitioa Ch^ re-
maindet.

J^ T%a«a greatly, very; i,^- fhseto,, ^srery much,
excessive; J^ ^ ^ $ ^^ ^ng ^fng seay, rath«?
toa indifferent; JL ff % t'bae sbw<S hwa,too big tali;
Jt S ^ % **hae chliiilb yuag e, too easy. It is trf-
ten combined with ?J| -|wb.; ^ & ft& & 0s® ffK»
t%a^ kwo, he loved me tc»o nmch; ^ Ki? ^ i m
fei 8in leih t'hat kwaf he bestowed too much ca*e upon it
Yfc, abo a^curg ia this sense: as j^C ^| f^ yifc
po, too indifier^nt; ^ j^ 7^ ^ yih «she p&h
very wrong; 1 ^J ^ k "hS3 yih tsaou seay,

Ci?AP.

? too early; ^J. :& .-fl 3&$B 3
very t&d physiognomy.
H&ou, or ^ & feaou pub, signify «?«"y : aa
baou hoc djwttt very foolish talk <r&f ^ ,
a pub naou j*, an exceeding great bustle;^
X jC fcstfu ke&Jiit ieaon, veiy much toughed ~fti

the ffrcainder we lefcar the Teader ta the
cles, ihat fossa the superlative degree: as for iBstaoce
leih, extremely; ?£ . ^ »f ^ ^fc^ ehay y«y
ses0o keih leuoft, thi^ is very ndieulcHis; f^ -ilp
shwo tiB ketb she, that is very Irnc; 3tc In
sueh atid similar cases these words are used b the same
manner, as if they sto^d Befwrc a» «djec:tive; ^ sM,,
and $t sli^i, two ve?bsf ^»t me^n to kill, are also used

f-^*r ^^^_ -^ "-fcfr" "^1^ — 1^0^^ \^-iJCT

to denote aoy ming excessive: as m w Jv -j$t ^w ^
kae shaa cbta gh& tib kaou, that hill te immensely high;
^ i^C |^ ^ 9? aeyih shl. laau taou, you are too
troubles®?^* S. ^t v^ ^ ehm kwae hw6- shS, I
bruly overjt^ed, or ready to die for joy,

Seay, a little; ^ ^ seu seay,
geay we, trifling, small. ^ Cfaay*
are afte& prefixed wifliout materiaBy changing
ihe sei»e; ^ ^ ^Jj hia seay haou, to day a little
better; |f || ^ Jlf lung seay show keo, shew off
somewhat Mime's skill. Affixed to adjectives it qua-
lifies their meaning: as ^f ^ haon seay, rather good;
t^ p5 aoay, miber cruel: preceeded by ^. muh, er
»iilb yih> it rna^y be translated net the least: ^~~
-tt* ^ ^ yih seay gan y^y raiah yewt he bad
e least rest; ^ -^ ^ Sf mGh seay t'hc meen,
the l«a^ respectability, Tt is also followed by
shin mo, in ih« «4me aense: as
shiu mo, talk a linle; ^f M
seay shin mo, to introduce >omethii
Jf F*ho, loused in tbe aen^e of rather: as
plbo t4>,rathel mucb;J^ ^[ plioyew, rather much;
$$ ^i ^ P*tl0 p*ho%hea«l tih, to understand somewhat
0f anything; ^[ ^ ^ jg, p'bo se« e hwA, raf her doubU
ia§; fe| H p^So E*ngt rafter capably

116 rMPOOTlONft, CHA*>,

82, ^ TofmiK?b;^^ kwo to, "too sonsy ;
to cbting, header, too beavvt^ ^ tarfuMnM»A
tokwa, bow iBauyl how much ?Jk
tbung u^gr^atTnuIiitiidtBs, ^j Sfei», sad pf ma the
more, and ^ hwa&g, how &m?h the taoire, ire used IB
ways: a? >& A bwsng tseay, stiil t»Dre, fuithei^
^bo hwang, how much lime i»ore;>^ ^
' ^ %- fl5 ^ hwang yay wei yew yiwig tlum
urh ^ now imii*th the more so, as he only uttas c^istaa!
sighs and nothing else; J^ fe^ng, more; |^ ^U — A
seu yih "jin, we muststUi nave one man; ^ ^
k^ng shin king Yneaou, the more the better; jg^
k^og pdh to dhiih, give BO more orders; ^
Vhae boshes still wait how long; IB
, and It 4

CHJiPTEB

PKEPCSTT1ONS.

I. WH-EK treatmg of the easas of substantives we
lready adverted to this class of words, We shall
give a«ticcinet ^ew oittiebr various us^ss
Yu, •»»/*, ^ is used m very different waysr as

- leapw le

tow»rii» him ifae proper ceremoBieg; f|« ^
y%ieh«y«sn, talkcRUtiotisly withhiraj ^ ^SL
ifc t*uh yu yet?,, not profthy to bt 'iqpraaa to^
1ft ^fe y u s»a ebtMii* b* swore ihat he would
bin iint^i^ **&;& A J» *t ^ ^ *to
Ji» « iTbnig V*1 ]*% fe ^*B l^*11 vith tt dub or wiib &
«w2n*i ^ f|t )| jfc yujp* -^°^ e'diftB* to bring mat*
tec* afc^ fey y^u^viB Jfc 3? & T> W ^
nit pdh hiog-ytt pu» w5a ttiug, 4b fe^M aad atjt to
Is Uae^me ^®ot to lm»-»t sfft A HI & i

CHAP* VII. PWBPOJUflOyS* 117

sbwuy yu ^ang teih, who will opp^e You? Majesty "?
Jf- ^36 ^ yu J°° 8^nsyo* conclude a contract with
you; ^ ^ 1^ HI y1* ttirn taag 15, to rejoice vith

inspire the hearts of the people with dtaBenee; ^ J^.

t^ p&h yu teuo yew, not comprised in it; %iHi $£
y£ 3f- &Mih n&ng yw yu s%e foo» who i^ sufficient
for thisf ^ ^ A jgM^^u ta !e, «atiifice with
great ceremony j ^; ^, KS p^h yu wUn, be did not ask
it of him • ^ ijf. jfc ^ kan .V11 cfam| ^^^ &fe eoncems
poliiies; ^j: J^- T&. ^} J& yi k^ih p^, aad parted with
tears 5 |k ^ ju 1m, to fee preseitt at the sacrifice; ^
^ ^L'^ pub lib y» ^h^* c»uid not be present at tihe
examinations; £ y£ $$. ffl Jfa ^ jfe kew ebe yu,
yih yu ebe yu, did "he seek for it, or was it given to him f
jft- ]it 3$. it yu ^a 8**00 ^5 different from this. It
is also used m comparison; a^^. ^- ^ $1 5|t ^ tih
yii ks kea B.ing po, m Ytrtue sincerity m better tb.ae

.

j8l J?^ y« fc^ tSng^ yfth knng wh s^e tJfaaQ, Shag fceu
raaou uli uA che tsuh, it is better to dwell lyi^tmw ho-
vel and be r ontent, than to ascend a splendid

uyw yu pe is
your niece or my wife f
2. -$b Yu.and J yu, -^%aify on, i», a/;
u cbeshei, terev^utfltetupreme

ya t Men woo yew, in heaves there are H?J
rows; ^ ^ 51 ® jl- ^ yu kea yu I wo wco
scitherM.my OWB fHw>?Sj iw of my csuBtiy-is there
hope; ^fc -}- ^ %- yu shUr f5h neew^ ID the 16th ^ear|
^ ^ ^ v« gao joe foo ywn, b to jw*? like s
«l«>uck; ^§- "^^ ^ ^(i yu ke t^ag, each
g'to bk clan; - bew keif u

sought help /rom

ki exbertatkm; ^» ^ ^f yu-' fe- pub
? in" strict jopiieC i* otntial be done. ^ ^ 46
as
of
gpo/fartbfe. faith to me; ^ $£ che yu-cfaing

"

FRSPosmora.

jiii, Dtttil he was full-grown; JLl ^* — paca
g&n yw wao yih, to repay the leu tbousa&dth part of hi&
kindness; ^f IF 1£ £ ^ yu pifa ie die wae, mot©
than ooe> hundred miles.

We have already lafriarked that^ yu serves to <2e-
sciibe the pmsuite: as ^ ^ ^ ^ jjfc- 'A laou leih
*?hay che yu juvtiiuse WBC perform manual labour are
ruled by mea; j| |- .% * * % [J& & &eui* teze
yew wfih^ lei yew yu wtth, the superior man possesses
tilings but k &ot jpot*e»t*^d try ibeirj, i. e. not enthrelled
by his riches; Jfc jj^ 5^ ^ & ? sze yu foo jin che
shew, died by tbe hand of a woman ; ^ ^ ^ ssh^ yu
tsou, killed ty the sword. It is used also in compa-
risons: as — 5£ -jfe $fc -ffc yih neen ebang yu t'ha, one
year older than he; JJJL ^ ^- ^ ^ m6 kooju tsze
uhe, there are acue more helpless than those who place
loo much confidence in themselves*

^ Foo, af, *X and on, is used nearly a» the above:
thus H$ -?• -£t R§ ch'hfih foo ke keen, to go out from
££ them ; JpL ^ 3lh e foo tsze, different from this;
-J- JL &?e chliuh feo shang, thoughts come frcua
^ |^ ^ ^ g&o cte&og foo shin, hide it about
per&aii;:Sf ^jziSL^ ^ haouheo kin foo che,
la tore learning is a near approach to knowledge*

tli H fcing.fob foo kwei, to w&m a rich man;
^- jfu she foo, fmn Let?^; ^ ^
wan, different ifrom what he heard ;^ lit
woo woo yb foo urh, i will not hide it from you ;
^ ^ puh taaa.foo aa, it doe» not consist m that
h :e«ed also s« eompaTisoas: a^ ^ A^ ^ ^ ^ m6 ta
.yaou tsliu-a, aeae greater ifests Vacu. sad Shun ; ^{
%B Ik ^f "S gn«jihjih diafeg ft •• : . 1 am
djjjr 'ei&T *h&» • you,

3. jjil 1^ jsignilies by, ihr&Mih* with ; as "3gL
lu le c yu h^4s, reason te eonfaundM fey
'^Sf H; e dbhwa, to draw mth the fim^f ; )>l 3R
^ e le dhuy. i£, t6 ded^ci fey reasoning; ^
yew « f fco. fe it dififercntl ^l ^ ft: i? c

•CHAft, VII* ^WOSITIOKS. 119

, in flie tenth month of the year* $1 - £ &£, from
Che past to fijture ages; ij >£- "W 4l ***** WIT e how,
from flow and henceforth; $ 3% e w*i, to eon side r, to
loolk upon; $ $; ^| J^ e wei sbtitg jin, considered
kim&& a sng%\! 7; $L ^ -|| p&h e -wei'e^ ootto^arefor
&'* n S. $j w e ebih^wei kiuh,ia uke the straight
for the croauedj jit

grasp be cppTesscd th*peon|e; J^ B e '!« ^^

-1> ^ ^ e

, acoofding to my fefilish pten;$ ffc-
tsltm njftnf hue ch% h« ire&tau ber as hts own

**T5 El ^ ^ ^ • Q 8110 kwfln «b% aee«j?dmg to my
view of tfat matter.

gi E, «r sometimes used for JU yung:- M. -i^-
^ )Jl ^ woo w«v> e yay, do n<^ ii«e we; ^ ^
^ Bl JW&& && ptlh e4 hs was indignaift at his not be-
ing employed,

W Kl So e? ^. j^l feoo •«, and ^ }>t she «3 all sigisi*
(y 1]ift evftfej rea80a> motive, therefore? as ^ ^, S^ Vi
nhekeso e, consider bis motives;...^ ^ ^l -fc peife
yew e yay , there must be & cause; $ fe e teo2 -this m«y
w;^^ thoejitmay pass;^ $, feo e3 whereby:
^ $> woo e? is sometimes pufc for ^ S w«0 e9 i
Will m0i desist;^ J# |!J 3E ^ wo^e tefb wang
if yaa will not deskt^ Aea let u$ ^peak fif the royal
tern of govenxmedi

4, ^| Ch^ Is -nearly synonymmis with
though it w aat so frequently used: $& |^ /$ dioo sin,
tt» hmrt; ^ ^ 2* «he dioo ke, to db tom-iaib one**-
»ctf| $ ^ 2^ »w cfeoo fee, to *«ek awythipig iVorn ^t>e'&.
fi^lf;^ M ^ ^^ ^ ,Rj pmchoo b'biii, chin chop
shoo ashi^lS origin of 5t Ur m Gce^tHietC, and th® e? i*
deuce -of it io fc&^ people; ^ ^ ^ sbe cfeoo dfca?3g« he
potnfod to Ihe pdni of bis hBi^d; % ^ tjt »l%oo>: ctvw^
tee wt^fo^ itao biai-gtidie;^ J^ ^ fea dhooAin, (e tt^
fleet m 9UBfc4feif.

5. ^ Te, principally used k eommsaftkiit and re^
gambling hi many r^peclj* £&. m h «ged to describe
the dative case? 20 ^ ^ fe ^ ^|*te jootseui6 hwau
khv to da 9^w ia yow behalf with KM eauee of cala-
mity; 3^ ^ TJ£ M^be jt^i thscMag, 1 will for

PRfifrOftrftOIHi. C«fAP. Til.

set out cm this joXimey; ^ A $ fbe jh?
Ieih% to exert one's-self for people,

We*t is used In the sense of for, in behalf of: a$
heftwsi ke, to study lor one's own benefit;

'*

. . .

wei sbwuy, if ! am act grieved CD feis account, on whose
account should I be grieved ?-% @ jS^ § wei kwo
cht>o faae, cm bdbdtf «f one's oouuiry to remove c&l&iui*
ty; ^ 5^ ^ weJ the be, to be glad on that account^ f^C
v§ H? ^- ^ve wei pin ts'hin^ to jpetition »a one's be»
ball ;' ^ "X. *p |C wei i'he«n nea se^au, U» be A Uugh-
etock to the empire; ^v ^ ^ ^^ giio we* ts^eyen
che.,- 1 will speak for you, Sit! ^ X J& jft wei jia
cbe ping, h<ea!et! ih^ diseases of the people ; ^ ^ ^~
^ weigno ts'hing iae, call him here to me; ^ ^
^ ^ wet tsze hwuy szc, in order to communicate: this
is alw&ys M$ed at the commencement of edicts, when the
CQitie&t& art given: a§ ^ tl{ 5^ ^ ]fjj5[ wei cb'huh she
^dsr to issu« a distinct proclamation, Of
4 yii w^ ^ wei teo^ ^ bj wei,® ^
fe y b wei tsie kouv &e we Uava already spokee,
6, j(L Tm^ m, at, ar irt>, is owe of the most frequent
; as Jt j^o t&ae ching, in th« city;^ ^
home; ^ tl| tsae sass, on the hills; |j ^

becomfiapteblv; jb ^ -t toe gno

, it devolve* apa> aief it rents .with me?;
keen isae ^ho% wilfa a drawn sword i» hid h&id;
; now; ^ ^ >§? teem tsxe e? the' way
'

It is afta combtiitd with m ^itmbw af ether

It ^ a^ ^ ^ tsae

>r^ tss&tih w&e, i^ul^ide the b^use;
g, above ;>$. A i tgae $»n shasig, on

^j -ub

t&c It, fo the. :'

CHAP. VII. FtlBPOSmONS, 12 J

, kwftching tsae foo yang rainf good government
consists in providing for the nation.

7. f| Tsze, fi yew; $t tsung, all meau/r0*», oto?,
fy, through; as g ^fc ^ ^ft )£ ^ tsze t'ha t&aoi?
neih e me, from the time that he rebelled and thence-
forward; ll ^ 5 4" tsze koo che kin, from ancient
times until now; fa $t fc tsze tstmg tsae, from the-
time of being at; fl $. Jd tsze lae woo, never; ^ ^
lae tsze. origin.

)fe Yew, is employed nearly in the same sense i at
itl ^ tL ^V yew ^ae e few, it is long since; || ^J

^ woo yew tih, no way of getting it ;-3|L-& kin yew?
the origin, or causa of anything;^ ^ $1 k'he tsing
yew, or y ^1 sze yew, causes; ip Sj t) Si ne£ yew
teze,tseu, misfortune brought upon one's-seif; A St
iS ^ yew tsze larhlae, from henceforth;^ \jj tsung
yew, or ^ ^J tsze ye w, signify from:}£) ^ yew she,
from hence ;^| ^ chow .yew, tfee mesas thvough wj»ieh
anything is brought about; j*- Jfc j^L 3t ^ yew kiij
e keib yuen, from the neat to the more distant; rfj jib
H ^. yew ^emirn- t«in^ enter 'by this door;$} ^
^V jst yew yuen jfifa iih, to enter through the ganlem
in to the house; ^r ^ |^ ^^vew yang s&ang piu
ts'hing, to petition through the Jiong merchants; $]
^ *g" -|< ^ yew woo kwafc chingpan, to be transact
eti by the military Mandarins; 4 •*• '3)t ^ Jfe; j|
yew she keun she ta shing, from this time the power of
the military greatly increased.

^ Tsung, means also from: a»$£ ^ ffi ^ tsung
yuen ivrh 5aet came from a distance; |fc-^ -^ ^) woo
tsung eha seun, no means of investigating; ^ ^ >v

^ woo tsurjg juh show, no means to get into one*$
hands; $£, ^ ^ tsung fang chliuh, went out of the
room. ^

8. ft: Hc^ug, "^ wang, and ^J neang, »11 meat*
&>K.T*:t$.- ^ ,^ g) heangnao, southwards; % -f@

gg fcttg ky httan^ tfhowv to have some fixed object;
|& heang tseeo. foi^ards; /^ ^ Jt si» heang
the heart directed upwards; t&|

CHAP. rti«

to dfcmand from him; f| J|] j^ ^ heaug p3ng
wo, ; tb speak to a friend. *

So alsb ^ tvang: as 113 J| H: JR T ^ h\vuy

£hiivg chung tsow. Be turned his horse, and iraa
rds the city; -§£ 1| B 4r 2^ pt ^ *P *»ng
:'hing9&an kweikew k'how, he made three
g-euuflexioxis and inne prostrations a» he went towards
th:.' galact;. IB like B)am>ejr^T yi^g: as ^ ^L ^ ^
^* 1^ ||§[ J^ wei tsze she yi?'g ko two chuen thiht
and hereby we addre&s onrs*f!v«s to the vessels of evei-y
oation; ^ j$ p ^ ft joo ying ko tea, we enjoin upon
every family.

9. Jl bhang, afc^^, T> hea, feeW, J^te, bentatk,
nil used as prepo&jtions: thus ^ j^, > jfe. shaug

h^a te, up to heaven, and down to earth; £ ^
"* fcH* J^* rfiang puh yuen t*heen^ hea pub
Vew jin^ above he HA not rej>!CC against heaven, below
lie harboured &o enmity against men ; J§ JL kan shang,
>Tne up with; ^ i — 1@ J§ pub shang urh ko
not above two months; Jr T; shang hea, above
below, more or less;^ i ^ krtian shang wan,
he above chapter; J: X^ shang sin, to rise up in
raittd; ^£ ^. t&ae te,1>elow.

10. 1$ Tseen, and ^t seen, raeaDing tefwre; and
how, after, come under this elas* of words : as £
^ sh&iig tseen k'cen, to go forward;^!. ^ yen

, befcite one's eye»; ^ ^ ^ ^ tsung tseen ehe
soiae fofmer bdsrne^: ^ ^ tsag tsees, to be be-
fi>re- ^ $ If Hi teeen fee\i k'ho keen, you may look
before the carriage, i @. take warning;^ + ^ ||
yew Aih nee& t«*eei>, ten years ago; >|| ^ tae iseen,
before the tnbusa!, before Your Exceiler«ey; ^ ^ ^f
18 we che tseep wSn, neve* heard of It fidfbre; ^ ^
Is^n tsin, to go forward; fSf ^ ^ ue t*eeu tsow, cb
do you go l^efore; % $& s€en che, to know beforehand;
^" $L ^ ^tj-^ag seen k'liuiig. bow, ta strive lo gel
before from a fear of belt^g behind.

So also^ how; a» ^?i how tae>in afte? asres; ^t

how sbe

CHAP. VII, PREPOSITIONS. 133

trae sun, the children and grand-cMidrea of the coving
age.

|gj Keen, between* letwi$t> and <m0w}, is used as a
prepositions: *ihus .?L $fe )f) fheen te keen, Hetw*££
heaven and earth; ^ ^ f§ cfaung been, amongst, amu&tj
*— J^- $fc $9 ythneenchekee»,ia tibe course of a year.
H. $} Nuy, and M> let w*, and &**&,£}"* wae, ****£*
«6fe; may be ranked among die Chinese prepositions: as

8 $J .yuea nuy, m the gardea; $fc $? te nuy, wiUi*
in tfce laud* ^ ^L t& pub tsae QUJT, not compruad'
therein;.^ ^ ^> ^ ^ W p6h tsae she kin she »wyt
not comprised within the prohibitkms; 3. U 1% ^
j^san jib nuy peih sze, will die within three days; $£
^ chtng le, within the city;^. B3 le meeii, inside

So abo#h wae; as ^ M^ k6 wae, outside the &u^
burbs; ^ %* e wae, beyond expectation; jfe $r k'hth
wae, out of the common way, extraordinary; ^fe 34 ^

H- l*i wae she gin, to shew favour beyond the letter
of the law;^ fi wae meea, and ^^ wae t'how,
outside, outer surface; ^ ^ ciiioo wae, besides, with
the exception of: these characters are always sepairated,
the first commencing the sentence* a»d the latter coai.
pleting it: thus * % || 1ft ' * . jR ^ i ft *
cboo joo chih kae foo yen niug cha peen wa«. besides
ordering the said Foo Magistrate to institute a
Strict investigation.

l2,^Tae, means for, instead of: as % tfc <P
woo tae ne tso, I will do it for you;

^ tae te tuug heang jin show k'hoo, he suffered for
his townsmen.

^ Tuy, signifies towards, to* opposite to: as ^ ^fc

fjL tuy t'ha «hw6, he said to him; ^ Jc ^ ^ tuy
t'heen^hw^&he, he swore by heaven; || ft ttty meeu^
opposite ta

Yin, ow account of; and ^ yuen, because of, nr.y

-

be taken as prepositions: as BJ -{Ip ^yiu ne pub
neih, on account of your obstinacy ; ^ % >ft yueu t'hae
man. on account of your bad treatment; g ^ ^j via
wei le^for Ihe sake of gam; @ $£ Si ^ y«n >*he eho
he, be sacrificed dccifiduig to the time;jj& {§ ^ ^

124 PREPOSITIONS. CHAP. VII.

peih yin ke tsae, you must employ men according to
their talents.

Keih, is used in the sense of to, until, &b<mt: as
. 3l^ ke ch& mo keih ioo, the examination
has no reference to you;^ JL-ft Jir A tan keih
/shin mojin, who are you speaking about; 7^ ~ j^
keih iuii yu£, until the second .r.cr.th.

3l ("he. ar.d f IS taou, mean to, or «***#% a# j£ Jfe

I, che tsze choo, to thk plaoe; ^ tt< 3[ ]fc 82e o
frfi&e,Jh« business having -come to this; xS|e ^ jj^-
}Jt. % ^ «uy che y u tsxe shin e, so that it come to this
extremity: g. ^ ^^ch^ kae tsuy fan, regarding
that criminal; f[ ^ it J^V "Sf ^ che yu nyu Jin
k'hin laou, as far as the industry of the women is con-
cerned,

So also 5»j taou: as -^ $} ^ 8^ sW taou t'heen
ming, they went on killing until bredk of day; ^ f^
^1 ^ 1$L ^ Jt yn la taou pwan yay feng che. the
Tain fell until midnight and theu ceased; ^ ^il ^ ^
s^e taou fce keen, matters having come to this pass; jfr
IF* $] |Bt IL binS P^b taou soo le, he bad not gone
above a few miles; ^^j ^ lae taou ching, he came
to the city; ^ $*! ^ %ts^ taou poo tsze, he receiv*
ed the communication of the board ;^^jj J. ^ fting
taou yuh ban, I received your valuable communication;
H3 jfe taou te, down to the ground;^ ^|] chow taouv
entire, complete; '1>|. J^' taou chooy every where; >JfL ^j-
^> f^J woo go puh taou, extending to everyplace;^
^ taou te. or f !J j^. taou te, still, yet, after all.

& Ch'biih, ow/,/rom, comes under the same class:
as ^ & ^ na ch*huh lae, bring him out; ^ & ^
seay chtuh lae, write it out;^ ^ JJ5 f9 chuh t'ha
ehtiuh mun, he kicked him out of doors.

'$&• Ho, and )^J tung, together^ with\ the former prin»
cipallv in coDversation; as ^J ifc -$r fSrho ne hing loo,
to walk with you; ^ )^3fc ^ l^fi Jin ho ma, both
and bor&es,

occurs in the sen.se of together \ with, in cott-

/*/ ^* l4 ?>v ^t ^ ^ ^en ^° ^e mao^
j^ writh-.his comp&nions he braved death;

CfcAP, Vlt. PREPOSITIONS. 125

^L A ^1- * ^" J?- leen jin yu shoo na keen, both
the man attd the letter were brought up for inspection.

Id. We may observe here, that many Chinese verbs
comprise i themselves our prepositions, an account of
which would come better uader the head «f Syntax,
A te«r more exatnj lesof prepositions may here fee given,

Thu« nttouti 1*1 quantity > is expressed by./c $?| ta y<\
^ ^ ta kae^ HL^ -3$- cha puh to, Jb T> shanghea;
thus ^v ^ jfiL t~ $fc ta yo woo tseen yin, about
6000 dollars; ^ jK^lio'fc'he chin, about to depart;
3k -Sfc -S& "^ ching yaou ma le, "he was about to a-
buse; jfo i$L5L. $ she che ching yug, it was •Qho&t
tike first month; ^ 3& ^ t neen tsean^j luh fthib, he
was about 60 years of age; W ~fc sze fang, and fil
taoti choo, ail about, every where; ^ ^
tsew yaou tso, I was just about to do it

14* According, is expressed by>$* e,
gan,^| $5 sunjing,'andflfe.keu: thus^^Pj ganle, ac-
cording to law; ^ ^ ^c tfr fcsua chaou gan pan> he
managed it well accordingly; D$ ^ ^ jing foo yuen^
he accordingly repaired to die office; ^ 'jj. keukin5 ac-
cording to his petition;^ ^ Jb tsung e keenv accord,
ing to your opinion; i$l $H$k.e kwei keu, according
to custom.

^<Km«f*may be thus expressed: as ^ Y^ tuy ne, or
t^c 2Jt te joo, or)*, ^t fan ioos against you*

Beyowd., is expressed by j*h wae, ^ kwo, and^ yu£ :
as v^" ?f bo wae, beyond the river ^ ^ fcvvd
beyond the limit: ^ j£ yu^ two, beyond measure.

Besides, is expressed by ^ £f liog wae,
hwao yew, }& ]fc choo tsae. uad ^r yu: as f i
;/> yu t&ze che wae, ^r ifc M* t^e wae, besides
^ ^ shang yew,, Btili more, besides.

For through, the Chinese use iE t'hung, and x
as it tr t'hung hing, to go through; $J ^ tsze t'how,
to stab through.

Wit hout. is thus expressed: as 5K ^ i6 ^ ^ ^t
4^ fel joo urh we tih kew ming., without you we sfeould
not have saved our rives ; Jft ^ ^ ^ f& i ^ woe;
jptib tih (so $£r£ e. without laoney men can&of trade*

CKAF, TIH,

Concerning* is expressed hy 25 jS 31 yajl ^ une
jVfBf bin, and I| ^ kwc? ya: as ^ f J£ J6 yu
beting, €o»jeenaing your eider brother; !fc & ^ ^ X
^* fun frae «&e ie gSay shoo, I shall write to you a let-
ter eoacieramg ifeis business,

CHAPTER

1. THIS is a very utimercus class, to which we
wish to draw the attention of the student, for without a
due knowledge of them, neither can the books be pro-
perly understood, nor the language appropriately writ-
ten or speken. The Chinese being destitute of in-
flexions, much of the intelligibility of sentences depends
upon the proper use of these particles.

2. These are the following; Jt tseay , and, stands

frequently at the commencement of sentences and whole

sections: as JL llfc tseay&hwo, a&d it is said; which is

aa introductory phrase at the commencement of most

worts of fiction. This "particle also couples words: as

'S & Hi fco tseay k''hw».n3 rich and liberal; ^ ^5

fi ^ sn^J cirSilseay kwang; »Jee|i and wide; ^J i

f^t gttoUeay^wShjoo, 1 also ask you; ^ JL J&
^ yu tseay !&ou inae teen, in my old age I bought a
field; Jl j^ t«e»y foo, .now further, Jl jjt teeay joof
ac\vas%4>r thus; JL IE Ji >%, tseay keu tseay • teow,
ri«w resisting, and now running; ^f 5. ^ ;fc JSl y°°
tiseay pub <:he tsub, stil» he was nat content; JL ^
^ ^t ^ ^M-^^y J«D (^ bing pah ching ki^:,
still, his actions were not correct; ^ ^C ^ IT ^ 3J"
yew ua fcboo k'hiu k'hao, raoreovci he took the

CHAK VIII. COPULATIVES, 12?

book and looked over it diligently r^fe JL koo tseay t
^R JL kenen tseay, ^ JL teeen tseay, all signify for the
time beiag, under existing circumstances : JL J\ *f6
tseay ebih p'ha, I waly fear.

This particle is also often used, as we have formerly
jreinarked to denote the imperative: thus JL ^ T ®
*j[ ffi tseay k'han hea hwuy fun keae, just look at the
aext chapter for the explanation ;JL ^fL^.^I tseay
p6h yaou sbwo, do not speak of it; JL H. "ft $£ A
tgeay mo bhw6 t'ha jin, do not speak of other men; 715
JL JSfc ~fi t-sew tseay fang hea, just put down the wine.

3. JC Yew, awdf fltio, is frequently used, especial-
ly in conversation: as4| A ^ ^ X ^ ^ ^Ir A
chow jin ehe to yew yew kew yu jia, if you receive a
charge from people, you will also be solicited by them ;
3t- K ^ ^ Jew chih she seaou, and only laughed;
A m tQ* ffeA^^yew k'feuig p'ha pe t'hs
»eaou hwa, he also feared lest the other should Jaugb at
bin*. It is frequently followed by a negative? as $k
X ^ ^1 joo yew puh che, do you also not know; ^
^ ^ ^ y^w pui show ming, again he would not
receive orders ;Jt ^ Jpjj ^| yew woo fan naoi^ more»
over he was not angry ;^X ^ yew lae, come again* JL
^ ^t 3@r yew ^ae tee^ ^ew> again he got himself into
a scrape; ^, ^L bvaug yew, how rtiuch the more; ^^
X- ffib yew, again; ^ X.^ ^ fiih yew joo tsse, a»
gain thus.

This particle is often repeated ia a sentence ; as Jt ^

3^ "|fe ^ ^f X- ^ c^™ i®®0^ y5^ yi0^ yia leaou yew
chih, feamvg eaten he .iraafe; aod fearing druakeB he ate
agaic;^ X^^JL^JC^L ^ ^ ping yew
sii:g puh keih, ss® yew sxe pfih tih, he was so .^kk that
he could not live, aadas for death He could .not die, i. e,
neither dead nor alive; ^ ^ X, ^ X.^Hyew he
yew muB^ yew king, he rejoiced and was sad, and alm>
feared; * X ^ #Jt ffe^Jfe & ^JttTvayyew
hwuy p5h keib, ka& yew ^ae woo sin, as to repe&tance
lie could not effect ii, and a& for reformation he had no

toifc;l& & K .X1^ .X Ji

H. X A

128 COPULATIVES. CHAP. Till.

yew tsun sew. yew tseay to tsae, yew yew he£ k'he, yew
laou shih, yew k'heen Jang, yew ho k'he, he was a man
of manly beau ty, of much talent, endowed with spirit,
honesty, modesty, and affability,

4, 7*8 Urh, is used both as a eopulative and disjunc-
tive: thus ^P ffii $f ^1 £• heo urh she shih che, to
learn and constantly to habituate ^yourself to anything;
1^6 H f^ urh yu£ jen, and he said yes, be it so; f^
^ ffij $p % yin go urh yang shen, hide the bad and
proclaim the gbod. This particle is, however, frequent-
ly used as a mere elegant appendage, partly to maintain
the cadence, and partly to give a turn to the sentence,
in which cases we cannot exactly translate it: as & $fe
3%r ffi ^Pi- win woo tth urh ching, the people could not
find tenas in which to praise;^ jg >)§ fa fQ fei
keen man ui h ho, if this he not rudeness, what is it 4?
1$t tfi !fc M£ tan urh piih yen, never tired with apeak-

iag;^ ffip >§. ^) 4&-A WBg ^A 6k nuy wo° j'B#
fortunately nobody was in the house; % — 5^ |t
36 ^ yew yih nyu mei urh been, he has a daughter
who is both pretty and accomplished;^ 1& '3JL $i
mwan urh bow se^, whey^ it is full it will nm out
When ffi) urh is put between two adjectives or substan*
lives the latter modifies the former: as JP, 35 ^ le urh
jin, stern, but benevolent ; ^ T?D ^f- kaou urh pingj
high, but level; jj|| ift $£ kwaBg mh maou, exteasivef
but luxuriant; $fe ^ Jfil JL ^ chuen kTiiiig urh tseay
foo, rtre vessel is light and moreover buoyant: ify J$~
^ ^ ^ urfa kin ho yew foo, can this exist now ? tftt
<$* S5' ^ urh kin urb howv heiieef<>rwdrd;if5 ti. urh
e, sr:d lathing urore; -fc -^ i^ ^ jis tih urh a, bcnevo*
lent but nothmg farther j ^c ~f~ 7tn\i. kew ts?^ urh e,
nine sons oinrlj: ^ fe ^ &. yu tsge >irh «, only here;
^ ^ jen OTSI, still, yet; ^ ^ £, ^5 urh e urh e, abr
scluteiy Bathing more.

5;- ^^Yay. and >^yih, are «ved. as cofmlatives: ffe§
Ibnner 0n1y ia conyersataon : m ^ ^ ^L >§ -^ ^
jay swan rlha yew pun sss, it may be accounted that he
has taUnts;4v *J» ^" ^- tS ^ J*y seacwi BVTS WCK?
lull fo«9 my. daughter a* «lsk> laforiunaf^ It &

CHAP, VIII. COPULATIVES.

followed by > yewf in enumerating things: as

.
yay yew teen mow, yav yew kea tsze, he had houses,

fields, and riches

It is often put behind the pronouns and other words,
when it may he translated by even: as ^ ^ ^ ^
€hay yay seaou sze^ even, this is a small business; ^ .&
Ifc? )fr dfe* 4ft g**° yay wo° *m ts*G cning, 1 myself al-
so have no intention to enter; the city; ^C ^ ^ ^*
~~ $ jN- A 4C fr& shwuy yay puh hhay yth pe -.-yu
fin keih teih, he did not eveo give a drink of water to
the people ;1| ^ ^ >S if l|-;-3t.4fc shing heea
yay puh V ho Vhantd yay, even a sage cannot thoroughly
fathom it; — •* ^fc ^ ^ yih seay yay piih liog, not
in the least degree intelligent; — *| «&. Jfe ^ y&
faaouyay woogae, not the slightest obstacle.

*& & Yay she, and & jfc ^ yay piih she, occur
feiy Frequently: as ^ -^ ^ ^L ^ Hr yay ^e moo
ts'liiu yu pei, this is also prepared by my mother; &
^ %L ^ {& ^ ^| yay she wang fei sin sze leaou, this
is also spending one's thought to no purpose; $L ^ ^
^ctt yay we k'ho che, it is also what cannot be known
or determined upon; ^ Jj^ yay we, not yet

It is often repeated in a sentence several times: as ^
& ^ ^ A ^ ^fc Jfc S 3t tseen yay puh hwan
jin, e yay ptth mae lae, he neither paid the people their
money, nor did he buy any clothes;^ & ^ ^ ffi
^ D & ^ ^ H$ W shiu yay piih yung ne kin,
k'howyay puh yung ne I'hae, he will neither allow
you to approach his person, nor permit you to open your
mouth.

It is also used in questions: as ^ ^ ^ ^ puh yay
16 foo, is this not delightful $ ^f $f, ^ ^ ^ ^
k'han t'ha k'h&ng yay puh k'h^ng, to see whether he
would or would not; ^ ty ;IL $L Jfc ^, puh che she
yay puh she, 1 do not know whether it is so or not; ^
$& ^ & >T fi. puh che tsae yay piih t$ae, 1 do not
know whether he i* there or not

ffi \'ih, is mere fr^c:uer*t]y used in books: as ^ffc ^
"ft ^ t'ha yih ghwo yu^, fee

COPULATIVES. CHAP. VIII,

this ie atao well, it wfll do; 3fc Jb& & & mow *ze
yih: wooyuen, I bhouid even DO! refine were I to die;
^^P A yihjoOiAe^itisalsothiis;^; ^P Jl ^ H
JF ^ I*& <*£ teuh <*ay feo jfih yew, he who does not
know contentment even when rich, is soirowful; ^f\
^F ^ ^ puh yih pe foo, was this not jjjtean'l l$l &
f| Jfr. jjp 1§" ^| suy ne tsze tseu yih k'helgen, though
you have brought thi* upon yourself, still you are wor-
thy of pity-; ^ fc ft IF It it ?t[ sh& Pun sho° yih

iae tbk tub, even ten volumes of books he ought to rend
entirely through;^ 5^ Jjfr Jit ~f pf Jt keen she
yih woo yen k'ho «hw69 on seeing him he could not
lifter a word; $t ^ & ^ H ^ yih pah yung gno
been yew, he did not allow me to saunter about.

6, ^t Keib. ifc used for and in edicts, and minor
iviirtngs, though not of frequent occurrence; as ^ X
^ gnckeifa joo, Iacdyou;X^t yew keih, now in
Conjunction with; >i ^ e k^ until, to.

\1|. Leen, occurs in the sense of and, together with;
as#t ^H^ gno leen joo, I and you; ^ A ,% leen jin
in*, both men and horses It is often followed by %
yay. when it means even; as §| & & ^ ^ leen
fang yay fiah *a<>u, he had even not swept the room.
In this ease it is often preceded in the first part of the
sentence by ^ ^ mo shwd, do not say; Jf; ^ piih
fih, nototjly;^ fR pub tan, not merely; ^ %& puh
toh, not^nly: as X $$ * ^ |gj ^ ^ iS ^c ^
u Si ;pf puh tub tse tszehwuy lae, leen chih nyu urh
k how fan chaou, not only did my wife and children re-
turn, but my two nieces also came back; |£ Ifc *& ^
5t it * * 'It £ II # ^ mo sbw6 chay she
che 16, Ken bow she cfae fuh yfti heang, not to speak of
the joys of the present world, even the happiness of the
world to coine he wiil also enjoy.

7 ^ Keen, bears the sen&e of sad, together with?
COTgobtly: as^.^H If * ^ ^ IX >6 If flf
jfe ping poo ^hang Riiookcen too ts'd yuen yew too yu
*be, Ae prmdeai t«f ihe mOsihry «M*arcl and Tnember of
the Ceiisurate: ® |^ 5E ^ ^ keun woo -keen le

military affairs and the

CHAP. VIII. COPULATIVES,

revenues; ^ rS ^* ^ keen ur^ yew c^ to
them together; jfe j)fc ^ JlJ^en tsze urhe, these two
ideas conjointly ;^L Kt 4& l|S[ S yew keen woo fr'he.
meen, and moreover withou^ respectability;^ |& keen
neg, to govern together: 2, fy IP ^T sati keen keen
tseuen,the three form one whole; |t 1^ 3fc 1t«L ehow
yay keen tsow, be travelled both night and day ;^ ^
Ife Jk 3jfr w&a woo keen woo kung, ueiAer the civil
nor military officers have any merit.

;§| Ping, has nearly the same signification as the a-
bove: as ^ H. ^ shoo ping tsaou, the trees aad grass.;
^ ^ ping keen, together with ;^ # *: ft ^ ^
^ Y£ chun ke show shuh ping meen yen che, let him
redeem himself and avoid severe punishment; Jfi. *$}^ ^
|C tseay mei ping mei, both the sisters were beautiful;
& 3f pinghing, to walk together; % Ifr fc 1% £
1> laouyew ping keae na hea, he seized on old an<t
young; — jfi ^ ?jfc y ih ping choo Ifiltr he killed them
all together; 3£ /J vt, ping leih chuy, to pursue wit hi
united strength. As already remarked above it is often
succeeded by a negative:^ ^ ^ 4 j|. ]£ If- ^
^t chih king ying s^ing e ping woo woo pes they mere-
ly endeavoured to obtain a livelihood, and there were
no abuses; j| ^ ^ ping woo waug, hopeless.

^ Kae, means and, together with: as %lk ^ ^
^r -J been ling kae he^ tae, the tteen magistrate and
the military Commandant, -jt ^ § ^L ^ she tseo
kae wan woo, the hereditary aobility and the civil and
military officers. ^1 Tung, with, occurs as a copula-
tive: as 3% J^ y|t gno tuog joo, I and you: also £ yu,
as )t ^ 1^ berung yu te, elder and younger brethren.
In edicts we often find-fr pi hwuy^ tung, and ^ fil
tub taeg, together with, in conjunction with, and un-
der the guidance o£

<>. $ Tsih, signifying /A«n; sometimes stands for
also, and; as Sli Q\ ty *$-& kwo t«h wfih taw kaef
having tranfegre^ed, then do not Imitate to ch4nge*
^ — $L teih yih ^^y, then it is one, the*ame; ^p ^
^ ;!7 Si W ^ jfc ^g yew }'u '•'ht l»ih e heo wan,
if fiiexe still j$i8&itt. stresjj* fojr r^etice^ then

COPULATIVES, CHAP. VIII.

terature; | fj ]§| shih tsih tung

eho, tsin tsih tung ehwang, to eat at the same tables
and sleep in the same bed. This partirle is often usrd
in deductions, and in pursuing a train of reasoning.
1^ If j$ 3t it sew shin tsih taou leih, cultivate per-
sonal virtue, then good principles will be established;
^MMM-M ^ ^ M ^;k'hin tsih ching,
ching tsih hing, hiug tsih tsin, be diligent, and it will
be accomplished, when accomplished you will succeed,
and when successful, you may advance. In the same
•way f^ |j jen tsih, and ^ Jfj she tsih, are also used,
88 & 1$ i£ ^ g! J ^ & Yin joo chuy tsze, she
tsih pBh lae» since you have refused you will not come.
hib particle is also repeated with — yih: as — J}*j
^r ^^PJt^yih tsih e he, yih tsih e yew, partly witfc
^ partly with sorrow. In conversation it stand* often
wth *f ka, at the end of sentences containing a request;
aft fr^ ¥ 4fc'H It SS ^T hwangt'heen k^ho leen
chuy kcw tsih ko, let august heaven lie compassionate
and grant release, then it will do;

let him come Over and speak, and that will do.

tp Tseih, then, is in some instances used as the a»
boye: as ^ $L £ ^ % IP A B 8i too yay we
kdb t«io tseih leen jib shwuy, last night rot having
been able to sleep, I have been hiciined to sleep during
Hv whole day; ^ -j| ^ ju tseih she tsin heung, this
i#the*t my own brother. It is often putia this manner,*
as explanatory of a foregoing part of the sentence.

9 ^ Foo, stands often at the commencement of
s^jtenoes as referring to something that has preceded:
thus ^ ^ ^ foo jin ch.jy, now with respect to virtue;
~^ ife '•*& foo t^oo kwan, now the military Mandarins
/ioasly f>|^ken c^g ^ ^ ife '^ H A foo yew
pflA che cfeo yay, now this is true oppression.
**WJt ^t Ttsew, then, Is ofteim&ed m conversation, as
T^ *3fc ^C ^ ^ $jc yaou pub tso, tsew puh tso, if
y«ti do'uot if ant to do it, then do not doit: also joined
's $i ^ |k ^ ^ seang peih tsew she
* ft mi^tbe he- ^ ^ ^ feew ^he leaotn

CHAP. VIII. COPULATIVES.

it \* thus. This term is often preceded by J|

shwo: as 3£ ft ^ S &$*&£$
shwo puh tain pur) fun, tsew she wang hing leaon, not
only did he not do his duty, but he acted like wine dis-
reputably;^ $fc i & & & + ^ *F -^6 hew
sbwo snn keen,tsew shesbih keen too yew, not fci say
three pieces, even ten pieces are IB my possession, it
is also followed by ^ yay, when it means even: Ufa ^
IfL & ^ J5t ^ tsew wan sze yay pub kan tsse, I
do not refuse to die even ten thousand deaths; Tfjfc ^
i$ ^ A& •% >F % tsew she t'he* shih jin, yay
kin puh teifa, even a man of iron and stone could not re»
sistit

Mark also the following expressions: i ^ ~j£ : $.
t^|l >»JR ^J cbayyang feeang iaa, tsew
yew e sin choc leaou, this kind of language leaves
no room for doubting; Ife i *$$ ^ tsew bSng joa
t'hefe, it then Became hardened like iroa; ^t ^ ^ —
$t tsew he mung yih pwan,, it was like a dream. >

11, 'I he use of ^ peea , liew, wen> nearly resem*
Bles the above; as ^ ^ ^ ^ ^fc >f> ^ '^ l^eia
she pe tse yay puh k'ho k'hwanf even in my wife, I
could not forgive this; %. & ^ If J^ ^ Jgt A
•fc ^L A ^| peen slje king^ sge t'heen tsze shS jin, yay
fang jin kTian, even when the Emperor at the Capital
puts any one to death, he allows the people to see it;
1ft ~$$- Fen haou* ^at is well, that will do; ^ 1S: ^
>F 'flf_8no l*ei1 ^k pBb.tih, immediately ! could not
ea*l ^ ^ ^ •?§ ^- ^a P^en ma t& ^-uh, when he
scoldea be abused people bitterly. It is also repeated
jf 1£ W ^ W 'fi ^ i«ae [)gen mae, puh mae peea
pa, if you want to buy, buy; if not, Jet it alone; -flp f§

* flt ^ * H * H 4t ft ^ 1^ ^ »e tfiR
shoo peen tung gno luh, gno tun shoo peen tung lie
tub, if you wish to study, then study with me, and if I
study. 1 will study with you,

12, $? &e*^ meaning therefore* then, yet, is used
often at the commencement of a section, and ic coanec*
tkm with^ shwo, to introduce a iiew subject Ja this
instance it is ateo preceded by % jjjl puh te, let us drop

the subject, and now speak of something else, Often it
serves to render a sentence still stronger: ij* ^ *fil "J
k'heopuh seih leaou, yet it is not to be regretted; 4$ J|,
^ ^C ^ ife k'heo she leang yang peih f», yet these
are two different hand*;||- % jjp >f£ % ^ ft jj:
•woo k'han ne fc»6 wan k'he5 keae e, 1 shall look on unl
til you have finished, and then explain my idea; H i$
•if ^ ^r Jin teih k'beo pub haou, thus it is not well ;
f£ 1ft $t ^ 3t -*P ^ ^ ne peea too mung, gno
Vheft tang yay. you are dreaming, and I am benighted;
^*'* W.#.,4 * ^ ^ ^ k'heo she ne fang
gno, fei she yu tsin ne, you are making inquiries after
me, it is not I who am seeking for you; -£p ^ $fc %%
%& k'heo she sin seang che, he is a new acquaintance;
^P SL >F JL ^'he6 ping puh keen, he did not see him;
^ B -SP .^ BF kin jih k'heo seang yay, do you still
think about it?. It is often followed byj£ she, and •&
yayras^ ^ — ^ *, ^ ^Tkshe6she yih
tsze yay puh shih. he does not know a single letter;

.

ko seaou tseay, k'heo yay swan puh tih yih £o urh tsze,
len daughters cannot be reckoned equal to one son;
M ^ ^p & ~~ ^ sing lae k*heo she yih mung, and
when he awoke, behold it was a dream \3Qf & ^ ^
k'heo yay haou seaou, it is after all a ridiculous affair.
It is also often used in phrases implying a question, as
some of the above sentences sufficiently hbew: so ako
^F ^ ffl ^ k'heo she ho koo, for what cause is thk ?
\i 1® 3® ~ft *p ^ -^ A « hay ko geang kuog,
k'heo she ho jin, who is this gentleman ?

13. ^ Fang, and $j|;tsae^ together witb^ seuen,
and 31 nyih, are used for then^ the first is much em-
ployed in all kinds of writing: thus ^ jf J^ ^ /v
tth fang k'ho fub jiu4 if you display virtue, you may then
subdue 'mankind; ^ Jjj. ^jL j|| fang tih kee, he then
attained his vvish; ^J ~# ^ fe guo fang fang sin^ I
tht^ii set my mind at ease; ^ ^ ^f 3 fong tsae »eay
leaou, he then finished hb writing: ^ »euen is ut>ed
VM tbe same manner iu *di«*ts but rather Beldam. So
i bsaks aud

CHAP. Vtll. COPULATIVES. 135

Tsae, w frequently met with: as ^. r
H $|, ^r SJ ^ hwan yaou che ke jih, tsae tih taou
show, you have only to wait a few days, and then it will
come to hand; ^ ?L H *|b ^ x!^ *f tsae s^e ko
chang kew che ke, this is then a scheme that will work
i°ng;^ Jl ft^Jt Ji tsaeplujen tih t'ha shaag
tow, then you may deceive him, so that he will be
caught, i. e. swallow the bait.

fK'i nj;, may frequently be translated by and: as
4SI- ~ ^ fc'*1?;?- W<)O £^ yea> an^ ke did not
speak one word; 7^ Jt~" Jl ^ SR ^J k%ig, sbe
yih tso k'hung ching leaou, and it was merely an empty
citadel; ^ ^, IL ^ >P ® t° k'tngr che che puh
w^n. and how shall we manage so, that he will ask no
questions.

14, $] Taou, and &] taou, though verbs, the first

to arrive, and the second to fall, are in conversation used

variously as connective particles: thus ^ ^ & Tfc

chay taou y ay puh tso, this then is not a mistake;

yih keen, taou yay rneaou, if I had been one step earlier
and seen him, it would have been well; %? ^ ^ &
~*jj?- 3 ko sze taou yay woo leaou, every affair was mis-
managed; ^t f^ ^j ^ @ ^ wei ho taou yaou hwuy
k'heu,why do you want to return? ^ ^ ^ ^^
S. ^ ^ ^ nan taoune mun taou ching pin puh tih,
it is hard to say that you cannot present one petition ; ^
^ ££3£ X ffl %- "^ |fe ne she nalejin taou hwuy
sh wo hwa, from whence are you, that you are able to speak
our language? & % f| £ &! # 33 £ ? -^ gnc
k'heuen choo s&ng taou puh joo k'beu leaou pa, I advise
you all to make the best of your way off; v6 f$ ^r ^

^ ^ij f^ $ flj . 3R ^ hw« teih na P"h *6, taon
na cho ko sze teih, it you cannot seize him alive, you
may "btaiu ius dead body;^ 1^ %- ^ Hfe 3t ^^
bo taou k'heu hae t?ha siing ming, why then do you qo to
Hijur. bife life V j^j -S 4^- & *w tacu ^c wo° sin tsujg.
on che contrary, he. is without affection;^ ^ 4r J>.
tacu noo k'he lae, on the gontrary he got angry. Tins
character may in the above iu&tdices iTc transited by-

135 COPULATIVES. CHAP.

how&xr, *till* on the contrary, 4*e. whilst no one
particle of oar own will in all instances convey -the idea,
When joined toJsLte, it means stilL however ^ after all:
a£ %] 7& -SS, Hit 3 taou te tsaou nan leaou, yet he
met witb difficulties;^ Jl- ^ ^ li ^ J£ ft #
^ dt ^f *flow woo yin-tseen, taou te yaou tsin leih
mow ta sge, though 1 have no money, I shall still exert
snyself to plan some great affair.

It-is aifed often jepeaied W & i* ^ . fi§ ^ -$

* * * H* ^f ,« at *.JL Be too kwan
kea tih ylk t^ou nmiy siig fe'he, nan taou ta yay taou
muh sing k'he, though you be a servant to a magistrate,
yet you can fall mto a passion, it is' hard to say that your
master cannot also have -such ebullitions? 3% ^ l|"
"ft ^ H f t ^ "fL ^S. gno pfih yen yii, ne taott
shwo fchangshwft twan, though 1 say nothing, yet you
prate very largely.

Both j$| chuen, and )*• fan, are used te signify on tht
contrary, tft«, yet: as % ^ ^ $ ft ^ jflJ ke tsuy
chuen wo<> e fuh kea, this crime un the contrary cannot
be exceeded in enormity; j|q| ^. ^r ^ chuen woo fang
f&, on the contrary we have no resource; ^ 3^ ^ Jg.
S $f § sze P^h tneiiifan weiso hae, if the business
ie not kept quiet, some mischief will yet come of it;

* % % ^ JR % ^ % te mow kenyih, fan show
ke vnng, thi* being a rebellious plot, they will still meet
with calamity.

15. $£ Jen, stands for y&, truly, and still: thua

^ ^ ^ ^ jenyih yew ch^ttill it does exist; $fr

iffi ^ t jeKiirh wejin,set this is not benevolence;

f X fg ^ k*hekejepfoo,h^wis it feus? ^ ft)

"^ ^ ^ ^- jea tsih puh isuh bed foo, is it not then

wcrtlsyto%e acquired? f* I^|^ Iff jea tsih tseang

saeho, but then what is to be don«« 3» Jfe ^(C ^t

^P $t cfce f^ze jen how cfee chung, if you know this,

then you will also know all; ^ j£ f^ we peih jen, it

IH not necessarlfe so; ^ $£ ?o ^: t&aee jen nrh jeu, it

k thus in itself, self-existent, always the same, immuta*

We; $f ^ jeu yay, it u truly thus; ^ ^C P^h jeiij it is

thus Compouads like ^ Tfo jen urh, but;

CHAP. WSt. COPCH.ATIVES. 13?

my jen, although; $& <|ft jen how, afterwards; |$fc ^
ke jen, since; ^ ^ jen yih, also;f5 $& jing jen, as
heretofore ; are frequent in the best writers,

16. Ip. Suy, is used for though^ although^ with its
compounds; as SjL Jj£ suy jen, notwithstanding; §| |&
tSK 5fc suy jen joo tsze, although it be thus; *jg| j$ j^k
suy joo tsze, ditto, ip. J& ^ suy j5 she, ditto. ^ $£
^ Jjt suy jen chay yang, ditto, used iu conversation:

fj^ suy she, although it be thus; % 4i •$« 4j ^JL
i? ^ suy yew tY^ ^iGS' we t$a«$tseuen pe, though
he has virtue, yet is he not perfect; || ffi i ^ 2,
^ • ^ ^ ^ ]§. suy jen yang tsze san neen, k'heo we
kan gan, though he nourishedt the child for three years,
yet it did nQt prove grateful; 9JL Jgl ^ & $ ife- «p
2 ^ suy joo she, jeu fei king keu che sin, fhoupi it
was thus, yet did he not shew any fear; ^ ^ >J ^f
$f ^F ^ ^ suy shing, yih yew so puh che yen,
though a man be a sage, yet there are some things which
he will not know; JJ; ^^^^^P?S^>fc
suy woo puh heo, jen hwuy w&n urh che che, though I
have not learnt this, yet 1 know it from hearsay The
particles that most commonly follow $jl suy, in the
cond part of the sentence, are ]fc yih, $fe jen, <$|I
t^ shang,^: tsew, and ^ yay.

$* Ke, occurs in the sense of since: as ^L
5fc ke jen joo tsze, since it is thu«; gfc '^| |f ^ J
^? ke yew tsin sin kee leih, since he has exerted him-
self to the utmost.

$) Shang, stands for yet, still* fyc, as 'f§ ^ shang
yew, there is still; ^ ^ ^ ^£ 1l f!L Ife ^ neen
suy laou mae, shang n&ng che ma, though he is old and
decrepid, yet he can gallop about on horseback; $j ^t
& shang tsae uh, he is still at home; -flfc 1^ ^ J^f f^
t'ha shang we ching sze, he has not yet accomplished the
business.

$5 J ing, signifies stillt as before: thus
jen, againn as before;^ ^ jiog kew, as formerly;

ing shang wang pe^still hfi'went thither; $$
c^aou ^ew panr arrange it as heretofore;
lae to

138 CO* JUNCTIONS. CHAP* Vlll.

jifig t& tseen ch&, he still commits the former faults,
he goes on in the old way.

CONDITIONAL CONJUNCTIONS.

17. The&e are 3S jo, andifc joo: thus ^ Jq

1st j^ tsae ^ woo» *fke aga*n faH *nt(l an error; ^ J^
fa%tft^L%&3b jo p&h raeen leih tso guh k'h«
shin, if he do not exert himself, and go quickly on big
journey; % ffc jo fee,, since it is thus; $jj $£ Jf\ &\ j&
jo jen puh seaou sin, if you do not take care; jjg ^ ^

jfc" 3F 41 'V . .t^ •* A j^ ^e t5h *ae» P&n k'han ne
tso kung foo, if I come back again and do not see you
at work — ; ^C %> H & ^ ^t gnojowoosifcwfcane,
if 1 had no intention of asking you; ^: ^ ^^£ fijT
kaou e keen jo ho, what is your opinion; 'p 1C ^ ^5
yen seaouts2ejo,he spoke and laughed, as if he were
at ease-;fi ^ seang jo, similar to each other ;JS H
'RT ^ jo tsze ho lae, from whence does he come
Jfe ft jopei, men of the same kind, fellows ;J§
)H ^ jo p^i fei t'hoo, such a set of villains.

iB Joo, is also used in this sense: as^P ^% jfe joa
yew rhe, if he has a mind;:£|i ^ $j || joo shoo taou
j«h. if the letter should arrive on that very day; jjjj ^
'S* joo fan chaiig\ as if turning round his har.d; ^ ^
^ ^ joo soo tsinghwan, to pay according to the num-
ber, to pay the whole; in ^ ^H ^ joo e joo yuen, ac-
cording to one's wishes and desires; ^ in -j£ ^ tang
joo che ho, how then shall we do; ^ ^ ^"fj joa
the nae ho, what is then to be done 1

CAUSATIVE CONJUNCTIONS.

18. The principal ones are ® yin, ^ yuen, ^yuen.
*& koo, ^ ^ yuen koo, ^. ^t ^she e, ^ wei,

g \in, exptesnes for, because, on accQuwtof: as

sr w 3 ^

CHAP, VIII. mSJUNCTIVES. 139

9t .A, y*n seaou shih ta, on account of small matters
he ha* missed greater ones; $fc S§ ^ ^ peib jiu lie
tsae, it must be^n account of his talents * gj jfe >£, ~$fc
yin tsze che koo, on this account; S H^F ffc ^ yhxtJie
che tee,' to sacrifice according to the seasons*

^ Yaen, and^ yuen, occur in the same sense: as
||l ))t ^ $L /& yuen tsze puhyu£ sin, on this ao
count he was not delighted; Jt fc $p Sfc Vpen lae joe
tsze, originally it is thus; ffl $t 3S> >t ^ ' ifc ^ fc

^ ^ yin joo faa ft yuen too, pSh kan kliwan tae, I
dare not be lenient, because you have transgressed
the laws;^l ^ H ^ JToen pun tstiv go, OB account
of our w%dness: f f Jf% j| £.*«*«
^ ^ i yin puh koo tsin tseih che yuen, keae keumg
koo too s^ng, by not paying attention to his relatives^
they spent a life of poverty.

jg Kae, occurs in the sense offor.because : as ^ ^

*tfl" ^ "If ^ ¥ ^ae ^eun ts*°g yi° yew chang sze. for
in military matters, tliere is a constant duty to perform;

t Jt^f^^^&^^feae sbang she
chang yew puh chwang ke tsin chay, for in ancient
times the &Q were some who did not bury their relations;

gt t »J§ ^ ^t T £ -fT ^ S kaeeshinming
show taou, puh wang hing che e, for it was with the in-
tention of maintaining good principles, and of not acting
disorderly. J|[ Kae, often commences essays, that con-
tain a whole string of reasonings, but it is by no means
so frequently used by the Chinese as the genius of our
language would demand, arid foreign writers err by
inserting it wherever for occurs in our tongue. The
surest way is to substitute g| yin, which is by far the
most common, and also to let the cause precede the ef-
fect, which is almost; an invariable rule iu Chinese.

DISJUNCTIVE.

19. & ChihjJt ebe,fj^ c?he, and 1^ ta, are used for
but, only^ &*c. the first in conversation, the second in
good writings, sad the two following ia edicts,

140 DISJUNCTIVES. . (MA?. Vttt.

Chih, is often followed hjjt she: as 3^ Jv Jt
j 4 ^H gno ehib she sze ieaou pa, there is sothiug
left &v iftfe but todie; J* ^ $k i% chib she jin nae,
ills «»hly to* be patient. Followed by $6 pa, ffi tih,
3*f haou, and^f kwan, it -gives a peculiar emphasis to
those i^ordb' : as,j\ *f& ^ 3& ^ *jj? chih pa sze puh
w&n tatig, I only fear that the business is not secure;
j?> 5. H |fe ^ chih san jih tsew lae, he will come in
three days; 3% * '"£ v£ ;£& gno chih tang puh fhe, I
merely acted it as iff knew nothing of it; J* H6 "5$ 1P9
V$fr j!t chih pa ne mun hih sze, 1 only fear you will
be fr»ghtened to deathf ^> ^ Jf^ ^f& W ^ ^ shwtt
lae chih pa ae pdh sin, if I tell you, I fear you will not
believe; }* ^ chih tth, means/orcerf, without resource^
and occurs fts commonly as the preceding: J£ ^ ;fe
^fe chih trti k'he ching, there remained nothing for
him to do but to proceed on his journey, z. \ J& vi
}> ^ S^ 1fc ttrfi jin woo fa, chih tih kiin t'ha, they both
were at a loss what to do, and had only to follow him;
'X 4f *"" ^~ fe 3 chih tih yih tse k*hei leaou,
they were forced to go all together a way ; ^ 0$- \|, ^
chih haou chay tang, it is only «*f this «ort; }* ^ m
^ Jt A. chih haou tso ko wan JIB, he is only good for
a literary character; J^ $$- £ ;^ fl chih haou woo
luh jih, only about five or six days; JP ^ chih k\yan>
signifies merely, only tJris:J& ?j» ^;i chih kwan
fang sin, only quiet yourself; J?^ ^ ^"% ^ 4- cbih
kwan k'hin k'hin^iuh shoo, only attend diligently to
your books; j\ ^f ^ H ^ ^. ^ *fe chih kwan
chungjih tan lae tan k'heu, he would do nothing the
whole day but babbk and talk;j^ J[ cn1^ e^ means,
only this is proper; J» J^ chih koo, only regard this,
mind nothing else; ){ %* chih k'ho, this alone is prac-
ticable; J* jfe IS A chih tszeurh e, only this and no-
thisg else; JS^ M chih yew. merely this, and nothing
else;.)*, |fc #t ^ Ife chih yu«n tsae show nan, only on
this account he suffered, it Ghe, is used iu the same
manner, but by far not so frequently : thus jL ^| — ^
ijhe y$w yit tseen, I have only one cash; ^ ^ 3$ %
^ jt ^fc 5" Sae c^e j°° 8^n, puh che jocr tssej be

CHAP. VIII. DISJUNCTIVES. 141

loved him as his own self, and not merely as his son;
IP & te ne.en, but, o'nly 1 thought; .^jL-'ff $ ^ Jft
che kwei ke kangshun, but valuing their obedience.

20. fS Tan, Ip tan, and fit tan, signify but, only:
as IS. ?$J — A *!5 ^ tan lew yih jin urh k'heu. he
left only one man and went uway;^JL >£ Ht ^tan
puh t'hing ming, only he did not listen to the orders.
It is often followed by3*ehih; as ffi. J* -fejB JC
Hf Ijfa tan chih woo pang yew k'ho ts'bing, but he had
no friends to invite ;$L $fe >P ^i& H tan jeu puh
n£ng kwo man, he could not OTercome his grief; ffi "f|
^L )ifc tan ts'hing fang TO,, I only request you io be at
ease; ^fE^^Ji jfc tan yuen jootsze, I only wish that
it may be so; >f£ ^fc Jfi $# tan tso puh fang, there is
no objection to your sitting down. It often means
wheresoever, all: iR <Q ^ ^ tan taou che choo,
wheresoever he came ;>fE @ fa M ^an taughingchay,
all who went with him.

ty Tan, is used in the same sense: as If* ^ 1% —
fSS tan shaou .t'ha.yih ko, he alone is wanted; ^ J£
^ Si ^I tan ehihkwan hooshw6, he thinks of no*
thing but talking at random; 11 ^. ^ Jfc ^ tan tae
ts'hin kin gho> h« only approached me, or condescended
to me; jp ^ ^ *l^ 4^ tan koo ke kea seaou, he only
looked to his family, m Tan, is used in the same sense.

21. ffi Wei, flji. wei,$| wei, and 7J nae, signify on~
ly, but: thus ^ ^ ^-^ % wei cho we mo kwang,
but the table was not yet polished; ^ HL iS iL wei
Iwan urh e, there was nothing but anarchy; *$. 3@

IB wei le she too, only hankering after gain^ ifji
^ ^ wei ming she t'hing, only listen to orders,
Wei, and ^. wer, are used in the same manner.

7$ Nae, is used as a particle: thus 7) ^ ^f '\
nae puh k'ho kew t^un, hut it cannot be Icmg maintain-
ed; 7} ^ ^r /i Bae puh show sin, but he could not
guard his heart: ^ % 36 nae, or 7$ £$ nae jo, mean as
to, as regards.

22. ^|f, Hwan, is used in the sens*; of &ko* stilly or:
&*%* ^S "ffc iC tt fif puh seang fha bwan ke tih,
1 did not think that be iras stBJ erifidfol of it:

142 DISJUNCTIVES. CHAP. Vltt.

hwaa shaug isaou, it is still early; j^ J Ife

choq leaou gno hwaa yew i*a ko, if I be ex-
cluded^ who else is there. With a negative after it, it
means not yet.- as ^ %* ^ ^ ^ bwan puh taou pu»
heang, he has sot yet arrived in Iris native place. Re-
peated it means either, or: as ^ Jfe . ^ ^ -& &- ^
bwan she tang chin, hwau she kea* is this true or false ;
^ -3t "«p&. Jfc' ill *. W * twan she tseu tse, hwau
she tae seay, whether will he marry her or still wait a
little. The second is often left out: as $~ U ^
£C ~$L $L & ^ ^ kin jih pfch che, hwan lae y$y pSh
lae, to day we do not know, whether he will eorae or
not; 4$ til ^ ^ ^fe- ^ ^ ne hwan she lew yupuh
lew, will you detain him or not;^Sl ;§: J|^ ^ ^J?*
^ hwan she keen t'ha puii keen t'ha, have you seen him
er not. It may also be translated by then .* as ^ j$i 5"
^. ;1L ^ Ifc S§ chay yin tsze hwan she yaou kin teih,
this money then is of some importance; J)? ^.^t ?5&
^ $ na le bwan iin teih chThub,how can you recognize
him; ffe ^ ^ 1(5 f >b 36 , * ^ t 1$ gno rhay
yang teih k'htio pe sze hwan kea shih pei, this kind of
suffering is then ten times worse than actual death.

23. ^fe H w6, and Iffp yih, signify either and or : with
a negative neither arid nor: thus ^C ^ ^ ^ hw&
wang hwi>- lae, either coming or going; ^ ^ ^ ^h
hwo tso hwo gno, either sitting or lying down; *% $£
^ ^F ^S hwoien hw6 puh jen, it may be thus or it
may not; 1$ ^ A JS. jR j£ <f§ Bflhwo puh tsae
uh, hwo puh tih been, he is either not at home, or not
atleism?; 3% *)jfc ^ ^ ^ 1& ^ 5. hwo ne puh she
hwo t'ha puh she, either you or he is iu fault.

ffl Yih, is employed in the same way: thus $? ^F-
J& 3L yih we che taou, or it is not yet uaderstootl;
tff $ A "ft 7& yih jin mow, or is this a plan of
theirs; $p M 4fe W~ yib tw5 woo yu, is this nothing?
^ -^ yih ho, how; ^ JL yi»i tseay, or.

.test, is expressed by $£• k'hung: iinfe^, by Bfe ^
choo fei: notwithstanding, by^L$fc suy jen, ^ ^
jp ft suy jen joo tsze, ffc ^ JP ^ ke she joo jen,

CHAfvlX, 143

CHAPTER. IX.

EXPLETIVES AN0 INTERJECTIONS.

1. THE expletives constitute a most important class
of words, not only for rounding peliods, but also for
promoting the intelligibility of sentences, and their con-
nection with each other. They are the very essence of
construction, especially in the literary style, asd tlteir
omission, or wrong position, is not only productive^ of
jarring sounds, but may entirely change the meaning of
a sentence. The principal ones are —

2. $ Foo, this is used in admirations, or exclama*
tions: as #§ ^ yuen foo, how detestable! v5£ ^ shin
foo, how deep ! Often merely to complete the rhythm us :
as 'jt ^ '>& *& e foo vew hwuy, it was right that he
should feel regret We bave already remarked that it
jls often put at the end of sentences, and in such instances
it ifc now and then followed by-^ tsae: as^ ^ ^
3$ jin yuen foo tsae, how far off is virtue! It is also
repeated in interrogations: as^ % 2$ 3* 3t B8 M

^ ke heo chay foo, ke w^n chay foo, whether has he
learnt it or heard it*? ft ^ ^ ^ ji shwi^ k'heu foo
ehwuy choo, who goes and who stays ? ^ ^ puh y ih,
either as a question or sign of admiration has -$• foo,
after it: as ^ ^ fc ^ puh yih jin foo, is not this be-
nevolence? ^ $ HF ^ puh yih kin foo, is not this
diligence ? In the following instances it may be consi-
dered either as an expletive or a preposition: as $ ^f-
tft] en'huh foo ke keen, he came from amongst them;
~# )& e foo tsze, diiFerent from this; ^ f ~ ifc ho
foo fsze, agreeing with this; $| ^ J& ke foo sze, or
$ & ft shoo foo sse, nearly dead;^# ^ 3t fl
sze foo foo tsin, like his father,
^ ^ Woo foo, is synonymous with 3fe*j$% woo ben*
^ y^ woo foo, ^ yjjf. w-oo foo, and HH ^ wcw> foo, all
«f which denote a/a^ /

3.^ E, and 1^ he, are mere fi&aS particles, and
atri-ctly euphonic, denoting au a£nn»ti^ m the

144 FXPtETIVSS AMf) mTEBJECTTOm CHAP. IS,

img sentence, or terminating a phrase: as %$? })£ $£ |L
*eang peth jen e* I think it must be so; -£- ^ "J j^
kin she jen e, BOW 1 examine the words; *% fa Jt
k'ho che e, it may be known ;£- || jfj ft It Jin e
urh e e, only virtue and justice, (nothing more;) $$% J
It chwang yu ke she e, stored up in the mar-
£~

ket; % ~ 9& >t g^voo we che che e, I do not yet
know it. It often corresponds with the relative
€hay, and admits the following combinations ; as |^
e f<*>, ^ A e foo,|tJl jen e, 3£ £urhe, & £ ee,
and ^ H ho e, which are mere finals.

-^ He, is mostly used in poetry, for the same pur-
pose as the above: as J$; *$* ^ -^ hih he heuen he,
now splendid ! how glorious ! -^ H A *$T pe me
jin "he^ that beautiful person ! ® ^ A ^ se fang jia
he, one from the western regions; ^ JL ^r -^ gan
teeay hingbe, tranquil and happy.

4. ^ T«ae, is a particle like ^ fco, and is used in
exclamations as well as questions: as^.-^^ shen
tsae wMn, how excellent a question! % ^*$ A foo
tsae yen yay, how rich the language ! fi *K ® 'fc
been tsae hwuy yay, how worthy a man is Hwuy ! 1»f
^ ^ ^ ho ke meaou tsae, what an error ! JL ^
^ A. )& 3L tatsae sbing jin che taou, how sublime

are the principles of the sages lljii t*F ^ 3*£ fuh ho e
t*ae,- why again doubt ? $: >& -®{ gan tsae tsae, where
is it ? J| ^ ^ ^ ^ keuen tsze to foo tsae, does a
Superior man have so many (wants) %

5. <fc Yay, is still more frequently used as an ex-
pletive, and is often added tojj| ehay, in the following
manner: 1? In definitions: as ^ J| £: ^ shen
chay jin yay, goodness is benevolence;^ ^ ^A. 5l
^T Sifctaouchay jin che hing f& yay, good principles
are the rules of human actions. 2, It refers to a former
subject, and then precedes ;% chay:asf§" ^ ^ ^jf ^

rj ^ -^ sin yew yay chay, puh k'ho tseue yay, feith-
fulness among friends (the subject just alluded to) can-
Dot be dispensed with; ^ ^ ^ ^ f ± ^L^^fc
chung yay chay, t'heen bea che t& pun yay, the due me»
diiim FS the grand principle current through the world,

CHAP. IX. EXPLETIVES AND INTfcRJfKCTlOHS. 14$

Or it follow:8^ chay at the end of a sentence; an
IF ^r 3~ 1$ ^j^^AJ&we h^o yang ^2e-» urb
ken r hay yay, (women) do not (first) learn to nourish
children and afterwards tnarry ; tffc ^- J^ |j} jgj ^1
^ ^ Jf^ "& we* kin *&e wfcQ* wh w** ''be '-he chay
yay, we have beard it just now, and did not know it
previously. 3, It is often a mere final particle, and
of this innumerable instances occur in every book* 4,
It is often repeated: as ^ T IT M) •& ^^'HT

1w 4* & * *T IS & t M ^ T ft *

t'heen hea k*bo kin yay, tseS 16 k*ho ts«e yay, pih jin
k'ho t'baou yay, ehun^ yung pSh k'ho n^ng yay, o e
may be able t& pacify &e eidpire, refuse titles of nobt
I»ty, tread on a Jiaked sword, (i e. boldly brave dan*
tfers) and still be unable to maintain the due medium;

jA J$f P§ *$ -§ j&f ^ ^* sifcg *° t^^g yay^ ming sp
e yay, surnames are alike, but individual names are dif-
rrent 5, It is often used in answer to questions: as
IS ^ k'ho foo, can it be done f ^ ^T & piih k'b'o yay,
h cannot be dose; ^ ^ yew foo, have you got it? £_
% $£. we yew yay, not yet; it is likewise joined*:© proper
»ai«es, when calling on any one: as if <& Yew yay,
Yew! 3Jt ^ Jfc* he Yu yay, come Yu! j| ^ «& Aia,
geay yay, Ma, write.

It may be useful also to mark the following sentences :
SB 3j| |£- ^ ^ A *& fhing sung^ woo yew jin yay, in
deciding cm lawsuits I am as others; K^f ^ 3& ft 3h
^ iS. woo fooy uen ke fun yutaou, oh bow far has he
abandoned right principles! ^, )£, ^ 13* ^ ^ ^0
2- It taou che pub hing yay, woo rhe che et I know
why righ^ principles are uot acted upon; ^. ^ ^ ^
^. jjj^ /J ^. ^ ^ Jl^ ^ ^ k'nra cbae che j^Sh
Chuen yay, nae t:^ung t&h che pub e e, the reasoQ of tber
Imperial commissioner^ not communicating tbis^ must
besought la the GovertM>r's dishonesty; jfc & ^L $i

yih yay, in burying one's father and mother, it is the
same, whether one be in respectable or mean circum*
&» a final it is also followed by j^yu: as ^
R R* £» £( jin «bing pub wa&gmiu yay yu»

146 EXPt^TlVES AND INTERJECTIONS, CHAP,

a benevolent Government does not entang e the jifetiplet
{in the net of the law;) ^ & yay e, is of frequent oc-
currence: as "ij~ "IK ^ ^ *& £ k'howeijin fang yay
e, it may he called a virtuous plan; ^ J5L |fc -fc 6,
|>uh tbuh kwan yay, e, not worthy to be looked upon.

6. :fcr- Foo is used by the befit writers as a final, sy«
toonymous withjj/i yay, and H e, with which it is also
combined: as t$ ^ ^P T $T 3$ Jfe Jfe." ching ehe
puh k'ho yen joo tsze foo, sincerity 'cannot thus be hid-
den; 31 J^ shin ta, or3l jt ^ shin ta foo, it is very
great! t 2^. ft .^t wanjg* che ming e foo, it is
your fate to die; ||j$; 3ft -fe jt »^gno che yay foo%
no one knows me;^ |t .^ woo e foo, it is done with
me; ill ^jt ^ft ^ h& wang kwan foo, why do you
not go and look ? 6 ^ A e e foo, abstain from it

7. ^% Yen, is often added at the end of sentences
for the sake of elegance; J- ifc ^ A ^ yu tsse yew
jin yen, there are men here; X >p & ^ e shaou sge
yen, he ought to ponder a little; E A ^ ^ ^ 3fe

| ^ ^ san jin hing peih yew gno sze yen, if there be
three walking t< gether, 1 shall always fiiid a teacher,
(t e. one of the number will teach me.) It is also re*
peated for the sake of cadence: a§ EH j$f ^ ^ ||"
^ 4 ^ S2e she hing yen, wan wuh §kng yen, die
four season* revolve, and all things are generated; JL
^ Ht ^i ^ ^ ft ^fi shing shin he yen, wan wuh
fuh yen, the stars are suspended (in heavens, vault)
and all things are overspread. It is likewise an ex?
pletive: as i ^ ^ shaug yen chay, suj)eriorH; 7* ^
^•^hea yen chay, inferiors; % -/^ ^ ^ ^ yoo yew
bwo yen chay, there are still some who doubt. This
particle is often used for the sake of alliteration, which
is a peculiarity of the Chinese: as Ip J: jSL $| t»eih
shang t'heen yen, he then ascended to heaven; ^ ^ ^
^ taou puh chuen yen^Jrue do< triass hftve fiet b^eu
commuiucated^p )fe ^ ^ joo tssse yen yen, thus
speaking; ^^^ mei yen yen, a fine countenance*
Expressions like & ^ hwub yen, suddenly; 7& )^i ^
tun bin yen. Joyfully; where H yen, b

CffAP. IXc MPt«TIVF,8 AND INTERJECTIONS. 147

mth *$C jen, in the formation of adverbs, occur in the
best writers.

8. & Urb,^f urh, and US urh, convey as finals
the idea of the diminutive.

i& Urh, principally in conversation: as #?- 'ft 3 & 3t
^ 3fc tseang shwang yea urh kwan gno, he looked at
me with both his eyes; V 1JJL 'HfL $$ %) 0& 3% ~?$ %
k'how le shw6 ke keu haou k'han hwa urh, his mouth
uttered a few fine words. In descriptions it is repeated
for the sake of euphony: as ^ & '2£ $- J&' ]$• P
$j ^ Jjt $L U$t yen urh shin, f>e urh kaou, ch'he urh
k'hung, shun urh k'hwang, the eyes were deep, the
nose projecting, the teeth hollow, and the lips wide open,

Jf. Urh, is inore frequent in books: as ^ jjjf ^ ffi

^ ^ ^ ^ 3£ ^r ^eun c^ay ^e h°^ wei puh yew
ke mi og urh, he is almost a prince, and only wants the
name; |fe & 3t £ fuhszeurh e, not think about it;

^ Ihlltar* ^Jl •* X f ^ puh he tso
chay lung peih fhow te win kwan urh, he did not like
to become a civil Mandarin that handles the pencil; ||
& ^ 3&F ^L *^ ^S » fe J^ ^ ^F" fei shay ptth tih
chay jdh ting,woo shatooaurh, could I not throw away,
this bU of black gauze cap t i. e. the badge of authority,
and retire from office.

|$f Urh, is also met with: as |§ ^ /^Ut keung
tseenjin urh, a poor, mean wretch;^ || H ^ keu
urh pa ping, on a sudden he disbandedhis soldiers; >$L
ffi ^ ^ fjfwei sotsih yen urh, it depends upon
what you chooss; ^C^ ^f Jl $£ koouvbtseen tseay
gan, let us therefore rest a little; 7) HI nae urk, it is
thus ; ^ |Sf yun urh, just as it is »aid, \c. It also forms
adverbs like$£ jen, and ^ yen: as ^ |f tsuh urh,
suddenly;^ ^ shen u&, well; % ffi <hd urh, confi-
dentially.

In ancient writer* ^5 urh is used, on account of the
similarity of the sound, in the same manner.

]!§ Choo, is in some sentences a mere final. Jp£ Yu, and
J$t yu, are either singly or combined with others used
eriroaJk such as ^ |£. ^ yay yu teae, Io

148 sxpiSJTim&s AW mrEiwEenoNs, CHAP. ix.

tion t*/§,n£, frjlle, and other provincial expletives are al-
so employed.

Amongst the compounds we enumerate the following:

31 H * yen «* * « « ^ y™ «* **$ ffi
e. H yen wh t e, & ^ & ^ e foo e foe, & *

^ e e foo, 6 fi A e e too.

9, jQf t&ie inteqections the following way be no*
ticed : ^ gae, ^ ef *% be, P^ neen,t^ e, jg; yew, ^ |^
beu e,ii* «f gae ya, j^ tffe tseay tsze, -Jg yew tsae,
signifying oh ! A vaunt ! is expressed by

80w P*^ fc <& °° cte« .Alas ! bl
klio seih, vj i^ ben tseay^||- ^e yri,

he, andtiteufe. When calling any one m conv
tion the Chinese u«e Pf ya, ^0,^5 $] ^ Vjfr gno teih
Iseya, my wifef^l: jg-^ IS W shehaou haou e o,
what an excellent idea ! , ^ na f been, oh heavens !
, andl^fow, aro interjeetioas expressive of

16 ya, are inteijertjons of astoni«Ejment: z; yua, rtr

ay!

14 DAY USE

RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED
LOAN DEPT.

This book is due on the last date stamped below, or
on the date to which renewed.
Renewed books are subject to immediate recall.

«*tf»BPI

REG'D US

JAN M 13b3

—

SENtONILL

FEB 2 7 2002

U. C. BERKELEY

LD 21A-50m-8,'57
(C8481slO)476B

General Library

University of California

Berkeley

YB.4C

U.C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES